Genotoxicity source

Hartmann A, Alder AC, Koller T, Widmer RM (1998) Identification of fluoroquinolone antibiotics as the main source of umuC genotoxicity in native hospital wastewater. Environ... 

Recently, Duirk et al. [34] showed evidence that iodinated X-ray contrast media (ICM), such as iopamidol, constitute an iodine source to form iodo-THM DBFs, e.g., dichloroiodomethane, and iodo-acid DBFs, e.g., iodoacetic acid, in chlorinated and chloraminated drinking waters. However, the complete reaction pathway is not fully understood yet, and it is under further investigation. Chloraminated and chlorinated source waters with iopamidol were genotoxic and cytotoxic in mammalian cells. This is in agreement with the previously reported high genotoxicity and cytotoxicity of the iodo-acids and iodo-THMs [20, 21]. 

In a laboratory environmental chamber study of the gas-phase photooxidation of naphthalene and phenan-threne, Sasaki and co-workers (1997b) found two products, 2-nitronaphthalene and 2-nitrodibenzopyranone (XI), that displayed significant genotoxicity in the MCL-5 human cell assay. This finding emphasized the importance of atmospheric reactions in forming mutagens, since the concentrations of such compounds are relatively high in ambient air compared to those expected for nitroarenes directly emitted from primary combustion sources (see Section F). 

The mycotoxin ochratoxin A (AAA) (7), which is a possible human carcinogen, continues to receive extensive attention due to its presence in a myriad of foods and beverages (1520, 1521) and its well-established toxicity (teratogenicity, mutagenicity, immunotoxicity, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity) (1522-1524). Major sources of ochratoxin A are grapes, must, and wine (1525-1533), cereals (1534), beer (1535,1536), dried fruit (1537), roasted coffee (1538), and cocoa products and chocolate (1539). 

Intense light sources (including solar light) may be dangerous for the skin (UV-B, 280-320 nm causes erythema, while UV-C below 280 nm is genotoxic) and the eyes. 

Lewtas J. 1988. Genotoxicity of complex mixtures strategies for the identification and comparative assessment of airborne mutagens and carcinogens from combustion sources. Fund Appl Toxicol 10 571-589. 

In case of genotoxic carcinogens biomarkers include DNA-adducts, which are considered to be markers of exposure, and biomarkers of effects e.g. chromosomal aberrations, sister chromatid exchanges, increased frequency of micronuclei or mutations (Swenberg et al. 2008). Whereas biomarkers of exposure extrapolate down to zero, biomarkers of effect interpolate with the spontaneous or background number of mutations. Since exposure can be multiple and via different sources over a certain time several definitions are used ... 

The list of alternative tests for reproductive toxicity, at variable stage of development, is fairly long given the complexity of the reproductive cycle and the multiple cell types and functions involved. An official source of information on alternative test development is the website of the European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) (http //ecvam-dbalm.jrc.ec. europa.eu/ updated to 15 June 2013). Forty methods are listed for the area of reproductive toxicity. They are split into four categories effects on female fertility (n = 8), effects on male fertility n= 10), developmental toxicity (n = 21), and genotoxicity-mutagenicity (n= 1). Only eight of these methods have been developed up to fully defined protocols that can be downloaded from the same website ... 

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