General principles scale

Chapter 3 introduced the basic concepts of scaleup for tubular reactors. The theory developed in this chapter allows scaleup of laminar flow reactors on a more substantive basis. Model-based scaleup supposes that the reactor is reasonably well understood at the pilot scale and that a model of the proposed plant-scale reactor predicts performance that is acceptable, although possibly worse than that achieved in the pilot reactor. So be it. If you trust the model, go for it. The alternative is blind scaleup, where the pilot reactor produces good product and where the scaleup is based on general principles and high hopes. There are situations where blind scaleup is the best choice based on business considerations but given your druthers, go for model-based scaleup. 

Ruan, J. and Bhushan, B., Atomic-Scale Friction Measurements Using Friction Force Microscopy Part 1. General Principles and New Measurement Techniques, ASME J. Tribol., Vol. 116,1994, pp. 378-388. 

Under this connection let mark that the position about an independence of the osmotic pressure of polymeric solutions into concentrated field of the strongly intertwined chains used in the scaling method is successful upon the result (8) in the presented concrete case, but can not be by general principle spreading on the all thermodynamic visualizations of polymeric solutions. For instance, free energy of the macromolecules conformation accordingly to (22) is function not only on the concentration, but also on the length of a chain at any choice of the method for the concentration expression. 

Pneumatic Conveying Pneumatic conveying systems can generally be scaled up on the principles of dilute-phase transport. Mass and heat transfer can be predicted on both the slip velocity during acceleration and the slip velocity at full acceleration. The slip velocity increases as the solids concentration is increased. 

Conventional combustion calorimeters operate on a macro scale, that is, they require samples of 0.5-1.0 g per experiment. Unfortunately, many interesting compounds are available only in much smaller amounts. In the case of oxygen combustion calorimetry, however, several combustion microcalori-meters that only demand 2-50 mg samples have been developed in recent years. The achievements and trends in this area through 1999 have been reviewed [7-10], and interested readers are directed to these publications. Since then, a few new apparatus have been reported [11-17], Nevertheless, it should be pointed out that the general principles and techniques used to study compounds at the micro scale are not greatly different from those used in macro combustion calorimetry. 

This chapter covers the general principles involved in the scale-up of biotechnology-derived products. Sections 1 and 11 focus on technologies currently used in the manufacture of commercial products. Sections III and IV include a practical approach to process design and scale-up strategies used to translate process development to large-scale production. 

Some composite catalysts are designed to promote several reactions of a sequence leading to the final products. A basic catalyst often can be selected with general principles, but subsequent fine tuning of a commercially attractive design must be done in a pilot plant or sometimes on a plant scale. 

The aim of scaling-up is to reproduce in production scale the conditions optimized at laboratory and/or pilot scale. Most of the general principles... 

Some particular aspects of mixing systems should be considered in relation to the general principles of model theory. First, if a general correlation is to be used for scale-up, it must be certain that the variables used in the correlation are the only ones acting in the given situation. Because of the complexity of mixing systems, we often lack... 

Scale-Up of Mixers For the details associated with the design and scale-up of agitated vessels, the reader is referred to Section 18 which covers this topic in great detail. The intention here is to provide only some of the general principles involved which have particular application to liquid-liquid extraction. 

The general principle of BD is based on Brownian motion, which is the random movement of solute molecules in dilute solution that result from repeated collisions of the solute with solvent molecules. In BD, solute molecules diffuse under the influence of systematic intermolecular and intramolecular forces, which are subject to frictional damping by the solvent, and the stochastic effects of the solvent, which is modeled as a continuum. The BD technique allows the generation of trajectories on much longer temporal and spatial scales than is feasible with molecular dynamics simulations, which are currently limited to a time of about 10 ns for medium-sized proteins. 

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