Gene duplication and

The evolutionary development of starter types, from which proteins later evolved via gene duplication and mutation... 

Ibanez, P., Bonnet, A. M., Debarges, B. et al. Causal relation between alpha-synuclein gene duplication and familial Parkinson s disease. Lancet 364 1169-1171,2004. 

Teichmann, S. A., Park, J., and Chothia, C. (1998). Structural assignments to the Mycoplasma genitalium proteins show extensive gene duplications and domain rearrangements. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sd. U.S.A. 95, 14658—14663. 

HisA and HisF both consist of a/j3-barrels with a twofold repeat pattern. It is likely that these proteins evolved by twofold gene duplication and gene fusion from... 

R. Sterner, and M. Wilmanns, Structural evidence for evolution of the beta/alpha barrel scaffold by gene duplication and fusion, Science 2000, 289, 1546-1550. 

In proper perspective, i.e., in relation to a 3-billion-year-long developmental period, the distance on the time scale between the eruption of trilobites versus hominids is remarkably short. It is much too short to build a human from an arthropod by gene duplication and mutation ... 

All observations such as gene duplications and redundancies are primordial chemical events that have been converted to mutations, gene duplications, and lateral gene transfers by the Darwinian/neo-Darwinian ideology. 

The reader has witnessed a head-on collision of experimental evidence with a major postulate of the neo-Darwinian model. As a consequence, differences are no longer mutations but rather have reverted to just differences. Both, gene duplications and mutations, are mimicked by primordial variability that was stabilized by the constraints of biology. 

It is well understood that the synthesis and modihcation of metabolites is under enzymatic control. The enzymes may function as catalysts, and the reactions themselves are not restricted only to living systems. So the evolution of biosynthetic capacity is largely the result of changes in enzymes by mutation, gene duplication, and other familiar processes. The organisms synthesize and modify secondary metabolites in a stepwise fashion, much as organic chemists do, and in neither case are the laws of nature violated. 

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