Functionalization dipolar cycloaddition reactions

The intramolecular cycloaddition of a nitrile oxide (a 1,3-dipole) to an alkene is ideally suited for the regio- and stereocontrolled synthesis of fused polycyclic isoxazolines.16 The simultaneous creation of two new rings and the synthetic versatility of the isoxa-zoline substructure contribute significantly to the popularity of this cycloaddition process in organic synthesis. In spite of its high degree of functionalization, aldoxime 32 was regarded as a viable substrate for an intramolecular 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction. Indeed, treatment of 32 (see Scheme 17) with sodium hypochlorite... 

For comprehensive reviews of 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions, see R. Huisgen, R. Grashey and J. Sauer in The Chemistry of Alkenes, S. Patai, ed., Interscience London, 1965, pp. 806-878 G. Bianchi, C. DeMicheli, and R. Gandolfi, in The Chemistry of Double Bonded Functional Groups, Part I, Supplement A, S. Patai, ed., Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1977, pp. 369-532 A. Padwa, ed., 1,3-Dipolar Cycloaddition Chemistry, Wiley, New York, 1984. 

Benzocyclobutene, when generated by oxidation of its iron tricarbonyl complex, can function as the dipolarophile in 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions with arylnitrile oxides (Scheme 113).177 Unfortunately the synthetic versatility of this type of process is limited because of the unreactivity of other 1,3-dipolar species such as phenyl azide, benzonitrile N-phenylimide, and a-(p-tolyl)benzylidenamine N-oxide.177... 

Accordingly, many reactions can be performed on the sidewalls of the CNTs, such as halogenation, hydrogenation, radical, electrophilic and nucleophilic additions, and so on [25, 37, 39, 42-44]. Exhaustively explored examples are the nitrene cycloaddition, the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction (with azomethinylides), radical additions using diazonium salts or radical addition of aromatic/phenyl primary amines. The aryl diazonium reduction can be performed by electrochemical means by forming a phenyl radical (by the extrusion of N2) that couples to a double bond [44]. Similarly, electrochemical oxidation of aromatic or aliphatic primary amines yields an amine radical that can be added to the double bond on the carbon surface. The direct covalent attachment of functional moieties to the sidewalls strongly enhances the solubility of the nanotubes in solvents and can also be tailored for different... 

In addition to the role of substituents in determining regioselectivity, several other structural features affect the reactivity of dipolarophiles. Strain increases reactivity. Norbomene, for example, is consistently more reactive than cyclohexene in 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions. Conjugated functional groups also usually increase reactivity. This increased reactivity has most often been demonstrated with electron-attracting substituents, but for some 1,3-dipoles, enamines, enol ethers, and other alkenes with donor substituents are also quite reactive. Some reactivity data for a series of alkenes with a few 1,3-dipoles are given in Table 6.3. Scheme 6.5 gives some examples of 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions. 

Elsewhere, Heaney et al. (313-315) found that alkenyloximes (e.g., 285), may react in a number of ways including formation of cyclic nitrones by the 1,3-APT reaction (Scheme 1.60). The benzodiazepinone nitrones (286) formed by the intramolecular 1,3-APT will undergo an intermolecular dipolar cycloaddition reaction with an external dipolarophile to afford five,seven,six-membered tricyclic adducts (287). Alternatively, the oximes may equilibrate to the corresponding N—H nitrones (288) and undergo intramolecular cycloaddition with the alkenyl function to afford five,six,six-membered tricyclic isoxazolidine adducts (289, R = H see also Section 1.11.2). In the presence of an electron-deficient alkene such as methyl vinyl ketone, the nitrogen of oxime 285 may be alkylated via the acyclic version of the 1,3-APT reaction and thus afford the N-alkylated nitrone 290 and the corresponding adduct 291. In more recent work, they prepared the related pyrimidodiazepine N-oxides by oxime-alkene cyclization for subsequent cycloaddition reactions (316). Related nitrones have been prepared by a number of workers by the more familiar route of condensation with alkylhydroxylamines (Scheme 1.67, Section 1.11.3). 

Due to space limitations, it is not possible to provide a comprehensive coverage of all 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition chemistry carried out using diazo compounds over the past two decades. Rather, attention will be given to the most significant developments, including the synthesis of novel heterocyclic systems, the preparation of well-established heterocycles (such as pyrazoles and pyrazolines) with novel functionalities, as well as stereoselective cycloadditions. A discussion of the theoretical, mechanistic, and kinetic aspects of these 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions will be kept to a minimum, but references to important work in these areas will be given at appropriate places. Authoritative reviews dealing with the... 

This chapter deals mainly with the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions of three 1,3-dipoles azomethine ylides, nitrile oxides, and nitrones. These three have been relatively well investigated, and examples of external reagent-mediated stereocontrolled cycloadditions of other 1,3-dipoles are quite limited. Both nitrile oxides and nitrones are 1,3-dipoles whose cycloaddition reactions with alkene dipolarophiles produce 2-isoxazolines and isoxazolidines, their dihydro derivatives. These two heterocycles have long been used as intermediates in a variety of synthetic applications because their rich functionality. When subjected to reductive cleavage of the N—O bonds of these heterocycles, for example, important building blocks such as p-hydroxy ketones (aldols), a,p-unsaturated ketones, y-amino alcohols, and so on are produced (7-12). Stereocontrolled and/or enantiocontrolled cycloadditions of nitrones are the most widely developed (6,13). Examples of enantioselective Lewis acid catalyzed 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions are summarized by J0rgensen in Chapter 12 of this book, and will not be discussed further here. 

This is mainly due to their laborious purification procedures and their required chemical modification for solubilization. Only recently, Prato et al. reported the electrochemistry of carbon nanotubes functionalized using the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction.120 The cyclic voltammogram obtained is shown in Fig. 8.9. 

The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction of benzonitrile oxide to the imine function of a benzothiazepine yielded the fused 1,2,4-oxadiazoline 77 <1995EJMC925>. 

SCS-MP2 and the new perturbative B2-PLYP density functional methods provide accurate reaction barriers and outperform MP2 and B3-LYP methods when applied to the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions of ethylene and acetylene.39 Phosphepine has been shown to catalyse the asymmetric 3 + 2-cycloaddition of allenes with a variety of enones (e.g. chalcones) to produce highly functionalized cyclopentenes with good enantiomeric excess.40 The AuPPh3SbF6 complex catalysed the intramolecular 3 + 2- cycloaddition of unactivated arenyne- (or enyne)-yne functionalities under ambient conditions.41 A review of the use of Rh(I)-catalysed 3 + 2-cycloadditions of diaryl-and arylalkyl-cyclopropenones and aryl-, heteroaryl-, and dialkyl-substituted alkynes to synthesise cyclopentadienones for use in the synthesis of natural products, polymers, dendrimers, and antigen-presenting scaffolds has been presented.42... 

In general, on chemical modification carbon nanotubes exhibit much less toxicity or nontoxicity to living cell lines that have been investigated so far.117,118 For instance, Dumortier et al. conducted an in vitro cell uptake study of the functionalized SWNTs with B and T lymphocytes and macrophages.117 Two types of functionalized SWNTs were used, one prepared via 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction and the other obtained through oxidation/amidation treatment. Both types of the functionalized nanotubes were rapidly taken up by lymphocytes and macrophages without affecting the overall... 

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