Forcing radiative surface

More accurate determination of reflective radiative surface emissivity The radiative emissivity of the composite surface, similarly to the heat transfer coefficient (4), is a function of the resin-char composition of the surface at any point during the combustion process, and is also affected by the surface profile and roughness. Hence it is not sufficient to use one value for this parameter in the model for the duration of the exposure event. However, characterizing the in-situ dynamic behavior of this parameter in a turbulent combustive atmosphere in the presence of soot, flame and airborne particles is a particularly challenging task, so that modelers may well be forced to rely on binary before/after shifts in the emissivity based on measurements made on the virgin resin-fiber composite and char-fiber residue respectively. 

On the surface it would seem that global nitrogen fertilization is beneficial in that it reduces the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere and thus its radiative forcing. However, it raises the question of how long global biomass can continue to respond in this way. Should the northern forests switch over from nitrogen fertilization to nitrogen saturation, or if other nutri-... 

Sulfur 10-200% increase6 in surface area of sulfate particles Increased aerosol mass loading, change in radiative forcing... 

There may, however, be some cancellation of errors. For example, the concentration of atmospheric C02 ([ref], in Eq. (T)) depends in a nonlinear fashion on the amount of total dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean surface layer because of the equilibria with water (see Chapter 8.B) so that relatively less atmospheric C02 can be taken up by the oceans as its atmospheric concentrations increase. This would leave relatively more C02 in the atmosphere, increasing its greenhouse effect. On the other hand, since the strongest infrared absorption bands of C02 are already saturated (vide supra), the radiative forcing (at-(), in Eq. (T)) decreases as its concentrations increase. 

Chou, M. D., and W. Zhou, Estimation and Model Validation of the Surface Solar Radiation and Cloud Radiative Forcing Using TOGA COARE Measurements, J. Clim., 10, 610-620 (1997). 

However, recently Pauldrach, Puls and Kudritzki (1986, "PPK") were able to prove that this failure of the theory was caused by one of the crucial approximations made by CAK, namely the "radial streaming approximation". In this approximation the interaction of photospheric photons with the wind plasma is treated as if they were streaming out radially from the stellar surface. This approximation is very poor. Even some stellar radii away from the star the photosphere forms a finite cone angle (Fig. 3), which is crucial for correct treatment of momentum exchange. This "finite cone angle effect" was taken into account by PPK by introducing a correction factor CF to the CAK radiative force fCA. ... 

RADIATIVE FORCING OF THE TROPOSPHERE-SURFACE CLIMATE SYSTEM... 

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