Flowers color

Frias L. D., Godoy, R., Iturra, P., Koref-Santibanez, S., Navarro, J., Pacheco, N. and Stebbins, G. L. 1975. Polymorphism and geographic variation in flower color in Chilean populations of Eschscholzia califomica. Plant Syst. Evol. 123 185-198. 

Kyhos, D. W. 1967. Evidence of different adaptations of flower color variants of Encelia farinosa (Compositae). Madrono 21 49-61. 

Asen, S., Eactors affecting formation of anthocyanin-flavonol co-pigment complexes and their importance on flower color. Plant Physiol, 47, 20, 1971. 

Many gardening books will state that the acidity of the soil affects the color of certain varieties of hydrangeas. The soil pH affects the availability of aluminum in the soil and thereby indirectly affects the flower color. A low pH or acidic conditions will yield blue blooms pink blossoms will be favored by a higher pH or alkaline conditions. A purple color is the result of a more moderate pH level. Potting soils with a high level of peat moss will produce blue hydrangeas. Areas... 

Under these conditions, blue flowers can be achieved as a metal complex of anthocyanin (called a metalloanthocyanin) is stabilized through the association of a metal ion with two hydroxy groups oriented ortho to one another on the anthocyanin ring, as illustrated in Fig. 9.4.3J2 In basic solution, the structure of the anthocyanin (Fig. 9.4.4) no longer has ortho-oriented hydroxy groups. Metal complexation is no longer possible, and the flower color appears red. 

T. Onozaki, M. Mato, M. Shiata and H. Ikeda, Differences in flower color and pigment composition among white carnation (Danthus caryophyllus L.) cultivars. Sci. Hort. 82 (1999) 103-111. 

Herbaceous perennials from seed will take a year or two to reach flowering size. Raising perennials from seed is mostly restricted to true species seed sown from a plant with a cultivar name is unlikely to produce a plant identical to the parent. Some perennials, such as columbines, will self-seed freely. The flower color may bear no relation to the parent plant, but that is not necessarily a bad thing. 

The W1 locus encodes flavonoid 3 5 -hydroxylase F3 5 H) [21]. F3 5 H diverts metabolic flux into the blue delphinidin branch of anthocyanin biosynthesis (Fig. 4.1). In the absence of F3 H activity (f), Wi and recessive wl give imperfect black and buff seed colors, respectively [10]. However, in black seeds, F3 H (T) phenotypically masks Wl. In contrast to its role in seeds, Wl has a prominent role in flower colors, as delphinidin-based anthocyanins are the major pigments in purple soybean flowers [22, 23]. Interestingly, F3 5 H is expressed at very low levels in flowers and seeds [21]. This suggests that, out of the two branch-point genes (i.e., F3 H and F3 5 H), it is the strong expression of F3 H in seed coats and weak expression in the flowers that determines preferential accumulation of cyanidin-based and delphinidin-based anthocyanins in these respective tissues [21]. 

Iwashina T, Oyoo ME, Khan NA et al (2008) Analysis of flavonoids in flower petals of soybean flower color variants. Crop Sci 48 1918-1924... 

Markham KR, Bloor S J, Nicholson R et al (2004) Black flower coloration in wUd Lisianthius nigrescens its chemistry and ecological consequences. Z Namrforsch C 59 625-630... 

Recently, mutation spectrum of flower color and flower shape of carnation was also investigated by Okamura et al. [108]. In the carnation variety Vital (spray-type, cherry pink flowers with frilly petals) tested, flower color mutants such as pink, white, and red were obtained by X-ray irradiation, whereas the color spectrum of the mutants obtained by carbon ion irradiation was wide such as pink, light pink, salmon, red, yellow, and complex and striped types. Furthermore, many kinds of round shape of petals were induced in addition to flower colors. These indicate that ion beams can induce novel flower color and shape with high frequency. 

Table 3 Mutation Spectrum of Flower Color in Chrysanthemum...

Figure 32 Novel mutants induced by ion beams. Top left 1-month-old plants of Arabidopsis wild type (top) and UV-B-resistant mutants (bottom) under high UV-B (11-13 kJ/m /day) condition. Top center and right complex (center) and striped (right) flower-color varieties of chrysanthemum. Bottom left flower of Arabidopsis frll mutant. Bottom center and right new carnation varieties with round petals (center) and Dianthus type petals (right).

Other Plants. As already described in Mutation Spectrum, complex and striped types of flower color have been obtained in chrysanthemum. A higher mutation frequency... 

The uvil-uvi4 mutants were induced from 1280 Mj, and the ast and frll mutants were obtained from the oflfspring of 1488 Mi seeds. As ion beams showed high induction of mutation of the known loci such as tt, gl, hy, it would be true that ion beams can highly induce not only known mutants but also novel mutants. In chrysanthemum and/or carnation, complex and striped flower color and new flower-shape mutants that have never been induced by low-LET radiation have been produced, indicating that ion beams could induce various kinds of mutants on the similar phenotypes. In conclusion, the character-... 

Nakayama, T. Yonekura-Sakakibara, K. Sato, T. Kikuchi, S. Fukui, Y. Fukuchi-Mizutani, M. Nakao, M. Tanaka, Y. Kusumi, T. Nishino, T. (2000) Aureusidin synthase polyphaiol oxidase homolog responsible for flower coloration. Science, 290, 1163-6. 

Honda, T. and Saito, N., Recent progress in the chemistry of polyacylated anthocyanins as flower color pigments. Heterocycles, 56, 633, 2002. 

Dangles, O., Saito, N., and Brouillard, R., Kinetic and thermodynamic control of flavylium hydration in the pelargonidin-cinnamic acid complexation. Origin of the extraordinary flower color diversity of Pharbitis nil, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 115, 3125, 1993. 

In a few species, the B-ring hydroxylation pattern is thought to be fully or partially determined through the HCA-CoA ester used by CHS (see Section 3.4.1). However, most commonly hydroxylation at the C-3 and C-5 positions is determined at the C15 level by the activity of two P450s, the F3 H and F3, 5 H. Genes and cDNAs for both enzymes, sometimes informally referred to as the red and blue genes because of their impact on flower color, were first cloned and characterized from Petunia and subsequently from several other species (listed in Ref. 5). Based on sequence analysis, the F3 H and F3, 5 H proteins are 56 to 58 kDa in size. 

Commonly the target phenotype has been flower color. In addition to the expected white-flower phenotypes, in some species both ordered and erratic pigmentation patterns have been obtained (Table 3.4). Patterning only seems to occur in species that naturally have patterned varieties. Furthermore, some of the patterns show instability, not only within a particular plant but also in their inheritance (see, e.g.. Ref. 331), which may limit the commercial usefulness of some of the more dramatic phenotypes. ... 

Sense and antisense Dendranthema Flower color changed from pink to white 385... 

Antisense Eustoma grandiflorum Flower color changed from purple to white or patterns 387... 

Antisense Gerbera hybrida Flower color changed from red to pink or cream 388... 

Sense and antisense Torenia fournieri Flower color changed from blue to pale blue or patterns 391, 392... 

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