ER measurement

Typically, ERS measurements are run with 1-2 MeV He ions, where such problems do not arise. 

The term following EL is always less than unity so that an adventitious correction to the laboratory energy occurs. This enhances the precision of the Er measurement. As with electrons, selection rules for ionization and dissociation seem to be relaxed. 

The idea by Rey to use ER during the main drying for control of the process has not been introduced largely, because as the measurement is not done in a solid block, the product becomes increasingly porous with unknown configurations. The ER measurement of physiological NaCl solution (Fig. 1.24) can be used to check the system. The ER measurement... 

Using DTA and ER measurements of quickly (200 °C/min) frozen sucrose-NaCl solutions, Mac Kenzie presented the different events occurring during slow rewarming. Among others two sucrose-NaCl solutions were studied a 24 % sucrose solution with 6 % NaCl... 

Fig. 1.27.2. Electrical resistance (ER) measurement of the same solution as in Fig. 1.27.1. identical temperature scale (Fig. land 2 from [1.25]).

From photos (Fig. 3.8) taken by a cryomicroscope, in which freeze drying is possible and from ER-measurements (Fig. 3.3.1), the maximum possible Xjce was determined as -38 °C, and -40 °C is chosen as Xice for the beginning of MD. 

Gurley (Air Permeability). Air permeability is proportional to electrical resistivity, for a given separator morphology. It can be used in place of electrical resistance (ER) measurements once the relationship between gurley and ER is established. The separator should have low gurley values for good electrical performance. 

The initial decrease in ionic film resistance and Increase in capacitance can be associated with either NaCl electrolyte or water entry into the film. From ER measurements this period is associated with a metal loss process at the substrate surface. However, between 9 to 23 days the ionic film resistance increases, which is associated with an arrest in metal loss at the substrate surface in ER measurements. It appears, therefore, that with the knowledge of an underfilm darkening phenomenon occurring at the substrate/coating interface, a film of a protective (ie passive or high ionic resistance) nature is produced during exposure. 

If the charges are embedded in a medium, the electrical properties of the intervening molecules decrease the force from the value calculated by Equation (4). The relative dielectric constant of the medium er measures this effect quantitatively. In surroundings other than a vacuum, the force between two charges is given by... 

The use of an ER measuring system and the interpretation of the results require some familiarization with the possibilities and limitations of the method. 

Willemer [1.27] compared ER measurements with photographs made by a cryomi-croscope, a scheme of which is shown in Figure 1.33. ER measurements of complex products are some times difficult to interpret. Figure 1.34.1 shows the ER curve of a cryoprotectant solution for a vims. The solution freezes partially by cooling to -10 °C,... 

Terentier and Kadeter [3.28] described the freeze-drying of the vaccine Yersinia pestis EV 76 in a solution containing 10% sucrose, 1% gelatin and 0.5% thiourea. The product was frozen on the shelves of a freeze-drying plant at -8 °C/min to -40 °C. From ER measurements it was concluded that below -24.4 °C a glass phase started and the eutectic temperature, Te was -17.1 °C. The drying time was determined as 9 h. If Tsh was controlled in such a way that Te was exceeded after 4.5 h, the survival rate fell to -50% if Te was reached after 6 h, the survival rate was -80%. One can assume that M D should only be terminated after 5 h or more, at which time the temperature could be raised. 

The fluorescence lifetimes of ER measured in a variety of solvents are summarized in Table 2. The lifetime varies widely from 85 ps in water to 2.05 ns in acetonitrile. In any case the decay follows satisfactorily a single exponential,indicating the absence of any kind of complication in solution. In fact, the... 

Electroreflectance (ER) measurement is a powerful technique that provides information on the redox state of the substance adsorbed in a monomolecular layer on an electrode [46]. When the ER spectrum is measured with an ADH-modified gold electrode at... 

Fig. 2.4 Schematic diagram of the instrumentation for the ER measurements. Notations LIA, lock-in amplifier ...

ER Measurements for Redox-active Thin Organic Films 57... 

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