Energy equivalent

TABLE A.8.1 Energetic Conversion Factors Between Conventional Atomic Units (a.u. or Hartree Energy Ej ), Electron-Volts (eV) and Chemical (Kcal/Mol) and Physical (Joule) Energies 

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The potential of natural gas, which typically has 85—95% methane, has been recognized as a plentiful and clean alternative feedstock to cmde oil (see Gas,natural). Estimates (1 3) place worldwide natural gas reserves at ca 1 x (3.5 x 10 ft ) corresponding to the energy equivalent of ca... 

Titanium alloyed with kon is a candidate for soHd-hydride energy storage material for automotive fuel. The hydride, FeTiH2, absorbs and releases hydrogen at low temperatures. This hydride stores 0.9 kWh /kg. To provide the energy equivalent to a tank of gasoline would thus requke about 800-kg... 

The critical strain energy release rate is the energy equivalent to fracture toughness, first proposed by Griffith [Phil. Trans. Royal Soc., A22I, 163 (1920)]. They are related by... 

The bicycle s energy efficiency superiority extends beyond hninali loconiotion and beyond all other forms of transportation. By com ertmg food into the energy equivalent of gasoline, the kilocalories of food energy needed by a human to pedal a bicycle is only a fraction of that needed to propel planes, trains, and automobiles (see Table 1). 

United States and the world (Figure 1), despite perceptions that it has been replaced by other sources. In 1997 production ofboth coal (23.2 quadrillion Btus, or about 4.6 billion barrels of oil) and natural gas (19.5 quadrillion Btus, or about 3.9 billion barrels of oil) on an energy equivalent basis exceeded U.S. domestic oil production (13.6 quadrillion Btus, equivalent to about 2.7 billion barrels, or 3.1 billion barrels of oil if natural gas liquids are included). Coal production in the United States nearly doubled from 1970 to 2000 (from about 600 million tons to about 1 billion tons produced annually). Meanwhile, petroleum consumption at 18.6 million barrels of oil per day is near the all-time high of 18.8 million barrels of oil per day in 1978. Net U.S. petroleum imports (8.9 million barrels of oil per day) in 1997 were worth 67 billion and exceeded U.S. petroleum production (8.3 million... 

The energy equivalent of one barrel (159 liters) of crude petroleum is about 6.6(10) joules. Table 1 shows that the production of a metric ton (1,000 kg or 2,200 pounds) of steel requires about four barrels of oil a ton of aluminum requires about forty barrels... 

Each day, tropical oceans absorb the energy equivalent to 250 billion barrels of oil. If less than one-tenth of 1 percent of this energy could be converted into electricity it would supply twenty times the amount of electricity, consumed daily in the United States. Unfortunately, this energy is spread out over 23 million square miles of ocean, providing a large volume of slightly heated water. 

Variations of these energy equivalents will appear in the literature. The values listed here are typical. 

In Sec. 8 we took the point of view that, when a molecule has been dissociated into ions, energy equivalent to the work done may be regarded as stored in the form of potential energy, which will be liberated when the ions recombine. The same point of view can be adopted with regard to the quantities Yvae and Y. The electrostatic part of this energy may be regarded as associated with the ionic field. 

This relation can be regarded as the free energy equivalent of Hess s law (Chapter 8). To illustrate its application, consider the synthesis of CuCl2 from the elements... 

Beta radiation Electron emission from unstable nuclei, 26,30,528 Binary molecular compound, 41-42,190 Binding energy Energy equivalent of the mass defect measure of nuclear stability, 522,523 Bismuth (m) sulfide, 540 Blassie, Michael, 629 Blind staggers, 574 Blister copper, 539 Blood alcohol concentrations, 43t Body-centered cubic cell (BCC) A cubic unit cell with an atom at each comer and one at the center, 246 Bohrmodd Model of the hydrogen atom... 

As shown in Fig. 2-58, a body entering the earth s atmosphere at 25,000 fps has a kinetic energy equivalent to 12,500 Btu/lb of vehicle mass. Assuming the vehicle weighs a ton, it possesses a thermal energy equivalent... 

Energy and bottle An interesting historical (1950s) example is the small injection blow molded whiskey bottles that were substituted for glass blown bottles in commercial aircraft continues to be used in all worldwide flying aircraft. At that time, just in USA, over 500 x 1012 Btu or the amount of energy equivalent to over 80 x 106 barrels of oil was reduced. 

Cole (Ref 1) described methods and presented data for measuring the underwater effects of expls. Price (Ref 3) suggested that the underwater effectiveness of an expl can be indicated by the sum of its shock wave and bubble energy equivalent wts (in her paper relative to 50/50 Pentolite). In Table 2 we compare such indices of underwater performance (but relative to TNT rather than Pentolite) with relative heats of detonation. We used 1.09kcal/g for the heat of detonation of TNT under the assumption that... 

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