Electrically Charged Particles

Two spherical particles whose centers are separated by a distance r repel each other with an interaction potential W r) of [see Section 2.4.4 Eq. (2-59) with D = r 2a]  

For charged particles, the net charge contained by the solvent must balance that carried by the particles. Suppose, in addition to these counterions, there is a concentration Ub of a symmetric electrolyte, where is the number of ion pairs per unit volume of suspension the concentration of ion pairs in the liquid phase is = nb/(l—0). The inverse square Debye length from both contributions then works out to be (Russel et al. 1989) 

Since they keep particles apart, the surface charges increase the effective particle diameter. The effective particle diameter d ff can be estimated from the condition 

This condition, when applied to Eq. (6-59) for the low-salt case, gives 

The effective volume fraction of particles is therefore 0eff = 0 ( eff/2a). Since a hard-sphere suspension forms a macrocrystalline lattice at a volume fraction of around 0 0.55, 

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If < 1, then binding is anticooperative, for example when an electrically charged particle adsorbs at an initially neutral surface the accumulated charge repels subsequent arrivals and makes their incorjDoration more difficult [58]. 

Electrostatic force A field in which stationary electrically charged particles are subjected to a force of attraction or repulsion, as the result of another stationary electric charge. 

C. T. R. Wilson (Cambridge) method of making the paths of electrically charged particles visible by condensation of vapour. 

Forces, such as the gravitational force, are transmitted by means of quantities that scientists call fields. All matter is influenced by forces carried by gravitational fields. Electrically charged particles are influenced by forces carried by electromagnetic fields. The gravitational and electromagnetic fields are not matter, but they have energy. 

Most minerals in water exist as ions - electrically charged particles that give them an electrical conductivity. The different systems of units that measure their concentration can cause much confusion. For any calculation involving adding different ions to one another it is vital to use one of two systems of equivalents. 

For electrically charged particles there are, in fact, three quantities that are intimately related—namely, the mobility in an electric field, the rate of diffusion in the absence of a field, and the character of their... 

The layers of opposite charges formed on the surface of individual electrically-charged particles in water, causing mutual repulsion. 

The composition of body fluids remains relatively constant despite the many demands placed on the body each day. On occasion, these demands cannot be met, and electrolytes and fluids must be given in an attempt to restore equilibrium. The solutions used in the management of body fluids discussed in this chapter include blood plasma, plasma protein fractions, protein substrates, energy substrates, plasma proteins, electrolytes, and miscellaneous replacement fluids. Electrolytes are electrically charged particles (ions) that are essential for normal cell function and are involved in various metabolic activities. This chapter discusses the use of electrolytes to replace one or more electrolytes that may be lost by the body. The last section of this chapter gives a brief overview of total parenteral nutrition (TPN). 

Another experiment showed that cathode rays were deflected by a magnetic field. This meant that they were electrically charged particles. 

Principles and Characteristics In electrophoresis the separation of electrically charged particles or molecules in a conductive liquid medium, usually aqueous, is achieved under the influence of a high electric field. This differs from chromatographic separations... 

Although the forces that hold molecules and solids together dominate the study of matter, there are other forces that affect chemical and physical properties. These are forces that arise as a result of the interactions between complete molecular units. Matter is composed of electrically charged particles, so it is reasonable to expect that there exists some force between any two molecules in close proximity. 

The transfer or conversion of energy is always associated with the emission of electromagnetic waves. We met this concept in its simplest form in Chapter 2, when we looked at the transfer of infrared radiation (i.e. heat). This emission of photons occurs because all objects contain electrically charged particles and, whenever an electrically charged particles accelerates, it emits electromagnetic waves. 

All objects at temperatures above absolute zero contain some thermal energy, so electrically charged particles within them continually undergo thermal motion. If we could cool matter to 0 K, then the thermal motion would cease and the matter would not emit any radiation. Again, we saw this idea in Chapter 2. 

Electrolytes Substances that break up into ions (electrically charged particles) when they are dissolved in body fluids or water. Some examples are sodium, potassium, chloride, and calcium. Electrolytes are primarily responsible for the movement of nutrients into cells, and the movement of wastes out of cells. [NIH]... 

We now come to internal metal contacts in ISEs without an internal solution. As discussed above, systems without internal electrolytes are used very often, with both solid and liquid membranes. Obviously, the condition of thermodynamic equilibrium requires that common electrically-charged particles (ions or electrons) be present in electrically-charged phases that are in contact (see chapter 2). ISEs with a silver halide membrane to which a silver contact is attached are relatively simple. In the system... 

Some piezoelectric crystals are electrically polarised in the absence of mechanical stress one example is gem-quality tourmaline crystals. Normally, this effect is unnoticed because the crystal does not act as the source of an electric field. Although there should be a surface charge, this is rapidly neutralised by charged particles from the environment and from the crystal itself. However, the polarisation decreases with increasing temperature and this can be used to reveal the polar nature of the crystal. If tourmaline is heated its polarisation decreases and it loses some of its surface charges. On rapid cooling it has a net polarisation and will attract small electrically charged particles such as ash. Such crystals are known as pyroelectric, and ferroelectric crystals are a special subclass of pyroelectric crystals. 

For the present theory to result in electrically charged particle states it therefore becomes necessary to look into radial functions R that are divergent at the origin. This leads to the subsequent question whether the corresponding integrals (B.9) would then be able to form the basis of an equilibrium having finite and nonzero values of all the quantities qit, Mo, mo, and, v(1. In the next section we will shown how this question can be answered. 

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