Distribution channels

We consider a co-extrusion die consisting of an outer circular distribution channel of rectangular cross-section, connected to an extrusion slot, which is a slowly tapering narrow passage between two flat, non-parallel plates. The polymer melt is fed through an inlet into the distribution channel and flows into... 

Elements that the researcher evaluates about competitors include plants, processes, raw material costs and avakabiHty, distribution channels, product development skills, service faciHties, personnel, pricing poHcies, eg, does the competitor lead or foUow , and practices or concessions to secure and hold large customers. AH of these factors are weighed and then the researcher decides on a strategy for the company. 

Distribution Channels. Most commodity chemicals ate primarily sold by the producer to a relatively small number of very large users. However, producers of commodity chemicals also utilize disttibutors to teach small volume users. Distributors buy in bulk and repackage or resell in smaller amounts to a broad spectmm of users. Distributors profit by the difference between their bulk cost and their LCL (less-than-cadoad lots) sales plus a commission from the producer, which may be as high as 15% of the bulk price but is mote often 5 to 10%. 

Urea and ammonium sulfate [7783-20-2] are coated by Chisso Co. under the trade names LP Cote and Meister. AH U.S. consumption of these products is sourced from Japan. Chisso-Asahi products are marketed through very specific distribution channels (Table 5). Coated N—P—K products are marketed primarily to commercial nurseries and greenhouses. Coated urea products are marketed in blends to commercial nurseries, as weU as to professional turf and strawberry growers. 

Off-The-Shelf-Iterns. These items required by the military services which are generally used thru-out the civilian economy and which are available thru normal commercial distribution channels Ref OrdTechTerm (1962), 208-R... 

Ownership also determines regulation. In Cypms, Government dmg supplies, including those manufactured by the Government-owned Pharmaceutical Laboratory, as well as imported dmgs, are exempt under Law 6/67 and do not have to be registered. In Cuba, because all dmg distribution channels are owned by the Government, inspection of these channels is not required by law. 

Another problem arises from the way in which the laws grant different responsibilities to different authorities, leading to coordination problems. In Cypms, the licensing body for manufacturing and marketing is the Dmg Council, which is an independent body with the DCQSS as its secretariat. The same body is responsible for GMP inspection. But inspections of distribution channels are undertaken by another department of the... 

This chapter assesses the situation in the 10 countries with respect to GMP inspection and inspection of distribution channels. 

Because distribution channels are usually dispersed throughout a country, inspection is sometimes delegated to the public administration at lower levels. This is the case in Australia, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Tunisia, Uganda and Venezuela. The remaining... 

In Australia and Malaysia, which have a federal system of government, the delegation of inspection responsibilities and reporting systems is organized in different ways. In Malaysia, inspection of distribution channels in the states comes under the authority of the State Deputy Director of Health (Pharmacy), and there is a direct route for reporting between the states and the federal agencies. 

Procedures for appealing against decisions resulting from GMP and distribution-channel inspections exist in each of the countries. Some countries employ administrative procedures to handle appeals, some employ judicial control, while others combine both approaches. 

In each of the countries, inspectors of both manufacturing plants and distribution channels are professionals, mostly pharmacists. Some countries also employ pharmacy assistants as inspectors. Uganda, in particular, has a large number of assistant dmg inspectors stationed in the regions. 

In most of the countries studied, the salaries of GMP and distribution-channel inspectors are lower than those of the professionals working in the facilities which they inspect. In Figures 7.1 and 7.2, the average monthly salaries of GMP inspectors and distribution-channel inspectors are shown, together with those of their counterparts in the private sector. 

Figure 7.2 Salaries of distribution-channel inspectors compared with their private-sector counterparts, 1998...

Private sector does not exist in Cuba and data for inspector of distribution channels not available. 

The difference between the monthly salary of a GMP inspector and of a head of production in a private pharmaceutical plant is considerable. The salary of a head of production is 3.3 times greater than that of a GMP inspector in Tunisia, and double that of a GMP inspector in Uganda. In these two countries, the gap between the monthly salary of a distribution-channel inspector and that of a pharmacist working in a retail pharmacy is smaller, but still significant. In Australia and the Netherlands, salaries for pharmaceutical professionals in the public and private sectors are comparable. Only in Cypms are GMP and distribution-channel inspectors better paid than their private-sector counterparts. 

An attempt is made in Figure 7.3 to give a crude picture of the human resources required in the various countries. For Australia, however, estimating the workload is not possible, owing to a lack of data about the number of distribution-channel inspectors. 

No. of manufacturing plants per GMP inspector n No. of distribution channels per inspector... 

Distribution channels — includes all types of drug outlet. 

In Australia, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Uganda and Zimbabwe, a fee is charged for GMP inspections. Uganda and Zimbabwe also charge fees for inspection of distribution channels. The fee system in Australia is based on the number of hours staff spend on an inspection, whereas the other countries charge a fixed rate (see Table 5.5). 

Information on implementation of GMP inspection plans is available in only some of the countries. Where data exist, they indicate that plans were successfully followed or even exceeded their targets. This applies to Cuba, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Uganda, Venezuela and Zimbabwe. For Cyprus, however, inspections of domestic plants fell short of the planned values. Cyprus has 10 domestic manufacturers, and nine inspections were planned, but in 1997 only seven were carried out. The Netherlands has 86 manufacturers and 28 inspections were planned in 1998 all of them were carried out. Venezuela has 41 manufacturers and 23 inspections were planned in 1997, of which 35 were carried out. So a low implementation rate does not necessarily indicate a low inspection rate. Enforcement measures are available in case of non-compliance in Cyprus, Estonia, Malaysia, Tunisia, Uganda, Venezuela and Zimbabwe. In Cuba, no enforcement measures are specified for failure to comply with GMP standards. Comparatively speaking, there is less likely to be a workplan for inspection of distribution channels than there is for GMP inspection. Only four countries — Cyprus, Estonia, Uganda and Venezuela — carry out inspection of distribution channels based on such a plan. 

Figure 7.5b Inspection of distribution channels in four countries coverage, violations and sanctions, 1997 ...

The types of violation found by inspecting distribution channels, and the types of enforcement measure used by countries are summarized in Table 7.2. 

Only four of tiie 10 countries— Australia, Estonia, Malaysia and the Netherlands —operate an audit system to evaluate the GMP performance of inspectors or the inspectorate. Auditing of distribution-channel inspection is carried out by Malaysia, the Netherlands, Uganda and Venezuela. In Australia, GMP audit is both internal and external, and involves an extensive review of process and technical approach. Further training, advice, revision of job description, legal proceedings and dismissal of inspectors are some of the means used to correct any weaknesses observed. 

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