Disruptive burning

Takahashi, F., I. J. Heilweil, and F.L. Dryer. 1989. Disruptive burning mechanism of free slurry droplets. Combustion Science Technology 65 151-65. 

About 2.5 million tons (2.3 million tonnes) of coal arc burned daily in U.S. power plants. This is equivalent to roughly 21,000 railcars in transit, so it is apparent that coorditiatiiig production and cotistimp-tioii is no easy task. Accidents, rail strikes, natural disasters (e.g., floods that take out bridges and rail lines) and severe weather (e.g., deep river freezes that halt barge traffic) can all severely disrupt deliveries for utility customers dependent on a reliable coal supply for base load plants. Nonetheless, to reduce costs U.S. utilities have significantly reduced typical inventory levels over time. Wliereas a coal inventory of ninety days of supply was once typical, inventories now frequently run in the range of thirty to forty-five days. 

Although many of the aromatic compounds based on benzene have pleasant odors, they are usually toxic, and some are carcinogenic. Volatile aromatic hydrocarbons are highly flammable and burn with a luminous, sooty flame. The effects of molecular size (in simple arenes as well as in substituted aromatics) and of molecular symmetry (e.g., xylene isomers) are noticeable in physical properties [48, p. 212 49, p. 375 50, p. 41]. Since the hybrid bonds of benzene rings are as stable as the single bonds in alkanes, aromatic compounds can participate in chemical reactions without disrupting the ring structure. 

Tyler, C.R., Burn, R.W., and Thorpe, K. et al. (In preparation). Anti-androgens in wastewater treatment works effluents contribute to widespread sexual disruption in fish living in English Rivers. 

Disruption of host defenses owing to intravenous catheters, indwelling Foley catheters, burns, trauma, surgery, and increased gastric pH (secondary to antacids, H2 blockers, and proton pump inhibitors) may place patients at higher risk for infection. Breaks in and entry into the skin provide a route for infection because the natural barrier of the skin is disrupted. Increased gastric pH can allow for bacterial overgrowth and has been associated with an increased risk of pneumonia.18... 

Burns, N., Grimwade, B., Ross-Macdonald, P., Choi, E.-Y., Finberg, K., Roeder, G., and Snyder, M. (1994). Large-scale analysis of gene expression, protein localization, and gene disruption in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genes Dev. 8, 1087—1105. 

Early bubbling FBC units were designed to burn coal, and the heat released was removed by heat transfer to in-bed tubes and/or to the water-wall tubes used to enclose the furnace. These surfaces experienced high rates of metal loss through the combined effects of erosion and abrasion. Protective measures such as plasma-sprayed coatings and metal fins to disrupt the solids flow pattern were used. These were effective for only short periods before requiring replacement, and so maintenance requirements were high. 

The decrease in film burn-out heat flux with increasing mass velocity of flow at constant quality has been explained by Lacey et al. in the following way. At constant quality, increasing total mass flow rate means increasing mass flow of vapor as well as liquid. It has been shown that above certain vapor rates increased liquid rates do not mean thicker liquid layers, because the increased flow is carried as entrained spray in the vapor. In fact, the higher vapor velocity, combined with a heat flux, might be expected to lead to easy disruption of the film with consequent burn-out, which seems to be what actually occurs at a constant steam mass velocity over very wide ranges of conditions—that is, the critical burn-out steam quality is inversely proportional to the total mass flow rate. 

In film breakdown at burn-out, nucleation may be a factor together with loss by entrainment and evaporation (in excess of spray deposition), and instabilities associated with surface tension. There is evidence for the existence of a critical vapor mass velocity, independent of pressure, above which the film is easily disrupted by heat fiux it is also clear that upstream conditions, including the inlet arrangements, must strongly influence the film breakdown at the exit. 

Astronomers use a variety of methods to determine the distance to objects in the universe. One of the most effective is the standard candle provided by Type la supemovae. These supemovae originate in a binary star system when a white dwarf star accretes matter from its companion. When the white dwarf reaches the Chandrasekhar limit of 1.4 solar masses, a thermonuclear runaway occurs that completely disrupts the star in a cataclysmic explosion that makes the supernova as bright as an entire galaxy. Because Type la supemovae occur in stars with similar masses and because the nuclear burning affects the entire star, they all have essentially the same intrinsic brightness and their apparent brightness observed from Earth can be used to derive the distance to the supernova. 

---