Dewpoints

As a starting point, the daily temperatures and dewpoints for carefully selected places and major cities in countries of concern (and the area of free trade they may belong to) have been analysed in order to identify 

The following equations have been used to calculate climatic parameters. 

The temperature measured four times per day at each place in degrees Celsius is converted into degrees Kelvin by adding 273.15. The mean temperature per year is calculated by the sum of all 48 temperatures (4 temperatures per day for each month), divided by 48. 

The dewpoints are handled in the same way as described above for the temperatures. 

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The calculation of single-stage equilibrium separations in multicomponent systems is implemented by a series of FORTRAN IV subroutines described in Chapter 7. These treat bubble and dewpoint calculations, isothermal and adiabatic equilibrium flash vaporizations, and liquid-liquid equilibrium "flash" separations. The treatment of multistage separation operations, which involves many additional considerations, is not considered in this monograph. 

Liquid Content Water Dewpoint at -5°C Heating Value Composition, COg,... 

To prevent such release, off gases are treated in Charcoal Delay Systems, which delay the release of xenon and krypton, and other radioactive gases, such as iodine and methyl iodide, until sufficient time has elapsed for the short-Hved radioactivity to decay. The delay time is increased by increasing the mass of adsorbent and by lowering the temperature and humidity for a boiling water reactor (BWR), a typical system containing 211 of activated carbon operated at 255 K, at 500 K dewpoint, and 101 kPa (15 psia) would provide about 42 days holdup for xenon and 1.8 days holdup for krypton (88). Humidity reduction is typically provided by a combination of a cooler-condenser and a molecular sieve adsorbent bed. 

Direct water spray cooling must be carried out with care. The spray chamber must be designed to ensure complete evaporation of all Hquid droplets before the gas enters the baghouse. Spray impinging on the chamber walls can result ia a dust mud iaside the chamber and any increase ia gas dewpoint may result in baghouse problems or atmospheric plume condensation. Spray nozzle wear can result in coarse or distorted spray and wetted bags, and water pressure failure can cause high temperature bag deterioration. 

Specifications. Fluorine, having a dewpoint of 40°C and containing a maximum of 1.0 ppm water, is sold in cylinders according to the following specifications ... 

Anhydrous ammonia is normally analy2ed for moisture, oil, and residue. The ammonia is first evaporated from the sample and the residue tested (86). In most instances, the amount of oil and sediment ia the samples are insignificant and the entire residue may be assumed to be water. For more accurate moisture determinations, the ammonia can be dissociated into nitrogen and hydrogen and the dewpoint of the dissociated gas obtained. This procedure works well where the concentration of water is in the ppm range. Where the amount of water is in the range of a few hundredths of a percent, acetic acid and methanol can be added to the residue and a Karl Fischer titration performed to an electrometricaHy detected end point (89—92). 

Sf=Q at 233.15 K = —40 C. Converted and interpolated from Theimodynamic Vmpeities of KLea 60 (Britisli units, 20 pp.), copyright ICI Chemicals and Polymers Limited, 1993. Reproduced hy permission. Ty = huhhle point temperature Tg = dewpoint temperature. 

The control system requires the values of T and AT obsei-ved during the first minutes of operation to be stored as the basis for the above calculation of end point. When the exhaust temperature then reaches the value calculated, diying is terminated. Coefficient K can be estimated from models but requires adjustment on-hne to reach product specifications repeatedly. Products having different moisture specifications or particle size will require different settings of K, but the system does compensate for variations in feed moisture, batch size, air moisture, and inlet temperature. Some exhaust air may be recirculated to control the dewpoint of the inlet air, thereby consei-v-ing energy toward the end of the batch and when the ambient air is especially diy. 

FIG. 27-23 Maximum fliie-gas dewpoint versus percent of snlfiir in typical oil fuels. (K=[ F-h459.7]/1.8)... 

To meet sales specifications, gas produced at the wellheads must be free of water and hydrocarbon liquids. Twin turboexpanders are a key component in this process, providing dewpoint control with optimal efficiency. Initial processing takes place at the wellhead platforms, where methanol is injected to inhibit hydrate formation. A corrosion inhibitor is also added to prevent gas from damaging downstream equipment. 

At the central platform, water and hydrocarbon liquids are first removed in knockout drums. Then saturated natural gas, free of any liquid droplets, enters the twin expanders. The gas is cooled below its dewpoint, allowing heavy hydrocarbon components and water vapor to condense in the discharge stream. Turboexpanders were chosen for two main reasons They are more compact than competing methods of controlling the dewpoint and their operating costs are typically lower than those of many alternatives. 

The expanders also remove energy from the gas, using that energy to drive a centrifugal compressor for pipeline recompression. As gas expands through the expander s inlet nozzle, pressure drops from 90 bar (1,300 psig) to 55 bar (800 psig). Temperature drops as well, below the dewpoint, and the liquids formed can be separated from the main gas stream. 

The extraction process at BP-Amoco Empress begins with natural gas arriving at the plant at about 15°C and 600 psi pressure. The gas is dehydrated to a -90°C dewpoint by means of molecular sieves. Still at 600 psi, the gas is introduced into heat exchangers and cooled to -70°C, at which point it begins to liquify in a separator. 

Because Norske Shell was using these turboexpanders in a dewpoint control process, it was necessary to factor in other specific conditions. For instance, these mrboexpanders could be exposed to possibly violent process transient conditions. For this reason, the magnetic bearings required a flux control system to increase the response capability, which was developed by the original equipment manufacturer in concert with the magnetic bearing manufacturer. The load factor of... 

In many cases, heating or cooling of the gaseous effluent will be required before if enters the control device. The engineer must be thoroughly aware of the gas laws, thermodynamic properties, and reactions involved to secure a satisfactory design. For example, if a gas is cooled there may be condensation if the temperature drops below the dewpoint. If water is sprayed into... 

Carrier gas Temperature Pressure Humidity Density Viscosity Dewpoint of all condensibles Corrosiveness Inflammability Toxicity... 

Activate Purge and pressurize Vessel entry pro- Purge to less than 1 % Ensure piping is Check dewpoint. 

Dewpoint means the temperature of saturated water vapor that has the same vapor pressure as the humid air in question. When the total pressure is constant, the constant vapor pressure means the same as the humidity x. In other words, dewpoint is the temperature of saturated air that has the same humidity as the air being considered. 

By cooling a certain surface so cold that water starts condensing on it and measuring that temperature, the dewpoint can be measured. Combining this with the measurement of the dry bulb temperature, the state of air can be defined. 

The total pressure thus has no importance. If this result is. sought from a Mollier diagram by finding the intersection of the humidity line (jr = humidity of air = constant) and the saturation curve, which gives the dewpoint temperature, a diagram constructed for a pressure of 9.S0 mbar should be used. A decent ap-proximation can be found from a diagram constructed for pressure p 1 bar. 

When the airflow meets a surface whose temperature is lower than the dewpoint, water vapor from the air condenses on the surface of the cooling coil. If all air comes into contact with the cold surface, the state of the air after the process will be at point 3. Some air always escapes the cold surface, and therefore the state of air after contact with the coil is a mixture of saturated air (3) and escaped air (1). The mixing point (2) lies on the line connecting points 1 and 3, as shown in Example 8. The nearer point 2 is to point 3, the more effective is the cooling coil. 

Cooling towers are commonly used for water cooling, but they can also be used for heat recovery from outlet air. If the water temperature is higher than the dewpoint of the air, water will cool in the tower. Cooling is caused by vaporization on the surface of the water drops. The vaporization energy comes from the inner energy of the water and in a certain phase, when the water temperature is lower than the dry bulb temperature of the air, also from the airflow. When the water temperature drops to near the air wet bulb temperature at the observation point,... 

If the air dewpoint is higher than the water temperature (or more accurately, the surface temperature of the drops), water vapor condenses from the air on the surface of the watet drops. Now the water warms up and the air cools down and at the same time dries up in other words, the cooling tower recovers heat from the outlet air. We will now consider the operation of a cooling tower more closely with the notations of Fig. 4.19. 

Saturated air is difficult to measure accurately a deviation of 3-5 K must be accepted. In some air conditioning systems, very humid air may condense on surfaces below the dewpoint temperature of the air. Poorly insulated ducts containing humid air can cause serious problems. See Fig. 9.57. 

The dewpoint hygrometer detects the dewpoint temperature of air by cooling a surface in contact with the air to the dewpoint temperature. There are several ways to achieve cooling and to observe the formation of condensate on the surface. The early dewpoint hygirometers were cooled simply by applying the vaporization of ether or some other suitable liquid. Condensate formation on the surface was determined visually. Other cooling methods are to use a refrigerant flow in direct or indirect contact with the back of the surface, or to use electricity with a (thermoelectric) Peltier element. 

The observation may be by a lamp illuminating the surface and a photocell to detect the scattered light due to the water droplets on the surface. The accurate measurement of the surface temperature, which is the dewpoint temperature, is critical. If a coolant is used, a close approximation for the surface temperature is the fluid temperature otherwise a small thermocouple or resistance sensor can be attached to or embedded into the surface. 

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