Dependence on alcohol

In contrast to the data above, UV monitoring of the hydride [Cp Fe(dppe)-H] protonated with a 30- to 200-fold excess of (CF3)3COH or (CF3)2CHOH (CH2CI2, pseudo-first-order conditions) led to the first-order dependence on alcohol concentration of the rates measured [22], In the framework of pathway (1), the result... 

Alcohol is one of the most commonly consumed drugs in the world and has been used by humans since the Stone Age. It is anxiolytic for this reason, it has been used not only for relaxation purposes but also by people with anxiety disorders to suppress their symptoms. Between 10% and 20% of agoraphobic patients are alcohol dependent. Thyrer et al. [1986] reported a 36% prevalence of alcoholism among socially phobic patients entering an anxiety disorders clinic, and [according to population studies] 20%-80% of people with posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD] are dependent on alcohol. Sierles et al. [1983], in their study of Vietnam War veterans with PTSD, found that 64% were alcohol dependent. Since the Epidemiological Catchment Area study estimated the lifetime prevalence of PTSD to be 1% in the United States population, it is clear that self-medication with alcohol for anxiety symptoms will have a major influence on the development of alcohol dependency [Regier et al. 1990]. 

Psychological dependence on alcohol is characterized by a compulsive desire to experience the rewarding effects of alcohol and, for current drinkers, a desire to avoid the negative consequences of withdrawal. People who have recovered from alcoholism and become abstinent still experience periods of intense craving for alcohol that can be set off by environmental cues associated in the past with drinking, such as familiar places, groups of people, or events. 

Kalant, Harold. 1977. "Comparative Aspects of Tolerance to, and Dependence on, Alcohol, Barbiturates, and Opiates." in Alcohol Intoxication and Withdrawal, edited by Milton M. Gross. New York Plenum. 

The kinetic course of the process is much simpler if the reaction takes place in excess of alcohol. In this case, the maximum reaction rate is observed in the very beginning of the reaction and the rate is described by the kinetics of a simple successive bimolecu-lar (actually, quasi-bimolecular) reaction 55). This procedure has been used by most researchers studying the kinetics of reactions of epoxy compounds with amines 50, 55-63) Unfortunately, the kinetic parameters obtained by different authors cannot be correlated since they depend on the nature of the alcohol used, exhibiting an increase with its acidity 55 56). On the other hand, the reaction rate constants obtained by using this approach are expected to depend on alcohol concentration and their values vary considerably. Nevertheless, a comparative study of the quasi-bimolecular rate constants under the same experimental conditions may serve for comparison. 

National Household Survey on Dmg Abuse, estimates 9.7 million Americans are dependent on alcohol. This figure includes the 915,000 young people ages 12-17 years who have a drinking problem. 

The significant influence of carboxylic acid on these reactions prompted a fundamental investigation into its role in the aerobic oxidation of 1-phenylethanol catalyzed by 44a (0.5 mol %) [80]. At low concentrations (<0.62 mol %), acetic acid has a beneficial effect on the reaction rate (Fig. 3a). Beyond this concentration, acetic acid exhibits an inhibitory effect. Acetic acid also influences the catalyst stability (Fig. 3b). In the absence of acetic acid, the reaction proceeds only to low levels of conversion. At 0.75 mol % acetic acid, the reaction begins with a high initial rate, but the time-course deviates from the expected first-order dependence on [alcohol] (Fig. 3b). The first-order dependence observed when [AcOH] is > 2mol% suggests that the catalyst is more stable (albeit somewhat less active) under these conditions. 

Belinsky SA, Bradford BU, Forman DT, et al. 1985. Hepatotoxicity due to allyl alcohol in deermice depends on alcohol dehydrogenase. Hepatology (Baltimore) 5 1179-1182. 

The reason is that alcohol is an addictive drug for some individuals. Some people are more prone to this, and there is evidence of a genetic factor as it seems to occur in families. It has been shown that alcohol can produce morphine-like chemicals in the brain. Some people become dependent on alcohol and experience withdrawal symptoms when they stop drinking. They suffer craving, headaches, trembling, insomnia, and anxiety, and become desperate for another drink, a fix , just like a cocaine or heroin addict. (Anyone who has seen the film Days of Wine and Roses, with Jack Lemmon and Lee Remick, wiU be familiar with the symptoms and effects.)... 

Adolescence, with its confusions, peer pressures, and tendencies to rebel, is a time when unhealthy patterns of drug use can develop that may persist into later life and he very hard to break. Young people may think they aren t as susceptible to dependence on alcohol as adults, but the evidence contradicts this view. Alcohol is a difficult drug to control at any age, and alcoholism doesn t appear overnight. It is the result of unwise drinking over time, beginning with the earliest experience of the drug. 

Acetals are equilibrium products between aldehydes and alcohols. As discussed by Williams and Strauss (30) acetals generally have less intense aromas than the corresponding alcohols and aldehydes. 1,1,3-Triethoxypropane and diethoxybutan-2-one (derived from acrolein and diacetyl, respectively) are common acetals in the heads fractions from continuous stills acetals from other aldehydes including acetaldehyde, propanal, isobutanal, and isovaleraldeyde are also common (30). The equilibrium between the aldehyde and the acetal is highly dependent on alcohol concentration and pH, again m ng accurate quantitation of either the aldehyde or the acetal dependent on the analytical conditions (e.g., sample dilution, solvent extraction, etc.) (30). 

Behavioural inability or unwillingness to cooperate, dependency on alcohol... 

Chronic heavy use of alcohol may have numerous physiological and psychological effects. All the effects involve increased dysfunction, and some may be fatal. Some chronic alcohol effects are caused directly by alcohol s toxicity to the body, such as damage to the liver. Other effects are indirectly related to long-term abusive drinking. For example, Wernicke s disease, which involves impaired cognitive functioning, is caused by nutritional deficiencies that tend to occur in people who are dependent on alcohol (Brands et al., 1998). 

Grove J, Brown AS, Daly AK, Bassendine MF, James OF, Day CP (1998) The Rsal polymorphism of CYP2E1 and susceptibility to alcoholic liver disease in Caucasians effect on age of presentation and dependence on alcohol dehydrogenase genotype. Pharmacogenetics, 8(4) 335-342. 

Finally, most clients who are in treatment do not remain abstinent from alcohol and other drugs. Earlier in the chapter, it was noted that nearly 57 percent of public-sector clients had more than one treatment admission. A literature review revealed that 40 percent to 60 percent of clients who were treated for dependence on alcohol, cocaine, or heroin were continually abstinent for 1 year following treatment. An additional 15 percent to 30 percent used alcohol or other drugs in a nondependent manner (this finding will be discussed in more detail later in the chapter). The best predictors of relapse were low socioeconomic status, the presence of a co-occmring mental disorder, and lack of family and social support systems. 

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