Defense expenditures

FILT) was included in the WTP function to be estimated. As regards mineral water expenditures, the basic idea is that some people buy mineral water as a result of dissatisfaction with tap-water quality. It is such defensive expenditures that should be included as an argument in the WT P function, not mineral water expenditures that arise from, for example, consuming mineral water as an alternative to alcoholic drinks. This means that a variable defined as annual household mineral-water expenditure per household member (PMYEAR) is likely to be too crude. A more refined variable (PMWCA) was defined in the following ways ... 

PMWCA gave some, but not ideal, information on defensive expenditures, since the other reasons the respondents gave for their mineral-water consumption were far from unambiguous. For example, aesthetic properties could refer to people s preference for mineral water because of tap water s bad taste, which they (incorrectly) think is caused by pollution, but it could also refer to a preference for bubbles (fizziness) in drinking water,... 

If the postwar era was a consumer s republic, however, it was undergirded by a war economy. During the Korean War, defense expenditures returned to World War II levels of twenty billion dollars annually, and... 

Sir Richard Clarke to Sir Leslie Rowan, 21 Jan. 1965, and Clarke to Sir William Armstrong, Insight on defence costs , n.d., CLRK 1/3/4/1, Churchill College, Cambridge. In addition to The Economics of Defense in the Nuclear Age (Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press, 1960), Clarke also recommended McKean s useful essay , Cost-benefit analysis and British defence policy , in Alan Peacock and D.J. Robertson (eds.). Public Expenditure Appraisal and Control (Edinburgh Oliver and Boyd, 1963), pp. 17-35. 

Weapons expenditure data strategic and tactical offensive and defensive strategies Determine emission rate, flight altitude, flight path and swath width requirements... 

This pattern may be changing, however, with the emergence of three general concerns. One concern mentioned earlier is that civilian research, development and demonstration programs, in contrast to military and space activities, have not been highly successful in producing important innovations. (it should be noted that there is doubt among economists even about the spill-over benefits of defense and space R D expenditures. (8))... 

In practical terms, target site resistance is commonly considered the most serious form of resistance for several reasons. First, it can not be counteracted by synergists. Second, once aquired it is a "built in" defense that does not require any extra energy expenditure and is available at all times (66), at least as long as the selection pressure prevails. Third, it usually means that the insect is defended against any other compounds with the same mode of action, as in the case of DDT, the pyrethrins, and the type I pyrethroids. In other words, an insect population with target site resistance often has target site cross resistance to other insecticides with the same mode of action. 

The United States spent more on science and engineering R D between 1981 and 2002 than any other OECD country (see Figures 4-18 and 4-19). In 2003, the United States spent over 250 billion (constant 2000 U.S.. ) on total R D this is 43 percent of the world total. Between 1981 and 2001, the U.S. percentage of world R D expenditures declined from 45 to 43 percent, and the G-7 percentage declined from 91 to 84 percent. The U.S. defense-related R D expenditures were about 50 billion—an amount equivalent to Germany s total S E expenditures. 

In 1953,54% of the total national expenditures for research and development came from the federal government. This percentage rose to 65% by 1960 and peaked in 1963 at 66%. Of these expenditures by the government for research and development in 1960, 80% of the 8 billion spent went to defense research. But while the federal government was the major sponsor of computational chemistry (much of the research was being done at national laboratories and at universities utilizing government facilities such as the University of Chi-... 

Military bioterrorism defense spending for civilians in the previous two fiscal years averaged about 200 million. The analysis says, though, that those figures do not truly account for all Pentagon funding for civilian bioterrorism defense measures. Some DOD research has direct civilian benefit, but because the majority of these funds are primarily military in application, these lines were excluded from calculation of total DOD expenditures, it says. 

These questions are meaningful for only a part, but an Increasingly significant one of our 50 billion R D effort. Defense and space expenditures make up about 17.6 billion and within this area, the Federal government both plans and Implements results. Likewise, the 24 billion of R D funded by industry Is integrated within the total capabilities of the private sector, and kept in balance by the financial disciplines of profits. 

This decline has a redoubled Impact since investment in capital equipment not only improves productivity and stimulates employment opportunities, but also encourages investment in research and development. Our leading competitors have increased their efforts in R D much more than we have. While our R D expenditures are much larger than any other nation s, a very letrge portion of the U.S. effort is directed toward defense euid other objectives. 

The high toxicity of nerve agents is their most important feature. It means that fairly small amounts of an agent can inflict substantial casualties, especially if an adversary has failed to take defensive precautions. It also facilitates the contamination of large areas with a comparatively small expenditure of ammunition. Should persistent agents be used, sizeable tracts of terrain could be contaminated for several days or weeks. The standard American nerve gases are sarin... 

Daily battalion expenditure of mortar shell on Bougainville during March was extremely heavy during the last three weeks of the month Company A alone expended 20,250 rounds in defense of a hill held by elements of the Americal Division. In an 11 March mission Companies A and D massed fire with 75-mm. and loj-mm. howitzers and with 6o-mm. and 81 -mm. mortars in a preparation which helped repel an enemy attack. Twelve days later Companies C and D joined with seven artillery battalions and two cannon companies in the heaviest general supporting fire laid down in the South Pacific fighting. 

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