Copolymerization alternating tendency

Lewis acids (dicthylaluminum chloride, ethyl aluminum scsquichloridc) have been used in conjunction with ATRP to provide greater alternating tendency in S-MMA copolytnerization.519 However, poor control was obtained because of interaction between the catalyst (CuCI/dNbpy) and the Lewis acid. Better results were obtained by RAFT polymerization/10 Copper catalysts, in particular Cu(lI)Br/PMDETA, have been shown to coordinate monomer but this has negligible influence on the outcome of copolymerization/6 ... 

The alternating tendency of the copolymers is advantageous in that the polymerizations can be carried out to high conversions with little or no compositional drift. For random copolymerizations in which there is preferential incorporation of one monomer due to a mismatch in reactivity ratios, the compositional variations with conversion can be substantial. Such compositional heterogeneities in resist materials can lead to severe problems during image development. 

Both the cross-propagation and complex mechanisms may be operative in alternating copolymerizations with the relative importance of each depending on the particular reaction system. The tendency toward alternation, with or without added Lewis, acid, is temperature-and concentration-dependent. Alternation decreases with increasing temperature and decreasing total monomer concentration since the extent of complex formation decreases. When the alternation tendency is less than absolute because of high reaction temperature, low monomer concentration, absence of a Lewis acid, or an imbalance in the coordinating abilities of the two monomers, copolymerization proceeds simultaneously by the two mechanisms. The quantitative aspects of this situation are considered in Sec. 6-5. 

The patterns of reactivity parameters, like the Q-e parameters, can be used to analyze reactivity in both copolymerization and homopolymerization. Look at the data in Table 6-4 and compare with the parameters in Table 6-8. The highly reactive radicals are those with lower values of ns- The highly reactive monomers are those with the more positive or less negative values of v. However, v is not the only consideration, polarity is also important. For example, maleic anhydride is a monomer with one of the most positive v values, but it undergoes facile copolymerization only with monomers with which it has a polarity difference. This is the alternation tendency and is given by... 

The general characteristics of anionic copolymerization are very similar to those of cationic copolymerization. There is a tendency toward ideal behavior in most anionic copolymerizations. Steric effects give rise to an alternating tendency for certain comonomer pairs. Thus the styrene-p-methylstyrene pair shows ideal behavior with t = 5.3, fy = 0.18, r fy = 0.95, while the styrene-a-methylstyrene pair shows a tendency toward alternation with t — 35, r% = 0.003, i ii 2 — 0.11 [Bhattacharyya et al., 1963 Shima et al., 1962]. The steric effect of the additional substituent in the a-position hinders the addition of a-methylstyrene to a-methylstyrene anion. The tendency toward alternation is essentially complete in the copolymerizations of the sterically hindered monomers 1,1-diphenylethylene and trans-, 2-diphe-nylethylene with 1,3-butadiene, isoprene, and 2,3-dimethyl-l,3-butadiene [Yuki et al., 1964]. 

Explain the relative alternating tendencies in these copolymerizations. 

In contrast to the radical-monomer interaction in the transition state proposed by Mayo and Walling (62, 63), the formation of a molecular complex between the electron donor monomer and the electron acceptor monomer—i.e., monomer-monomer interaction—has been proposed as the contributing factor in the free radical alternating copolymerization of styrene and maleic anhydride (8) as well as sulfur dioxide and mono-or diolefins (6, 9, 12, 13, 25, 41, 42, 43, 44, 61, 79, 80, 88). Walling and co-workers (83, 84) did note a relationship between the tendency to form molecular complexes and the alternating tendency and considered the possibility that alternation involved the attack of a radical on a molecular complex. However, it was the presence in the transition state of polar resonance forms resembling those in the colored molecular complexes which led to alternation in copolymerization (84). 

On the basis of their reactivity ratios (Table f 6-5 below), predict what types of microstruc- i tures (e.g., tendency to alternating, tendency to blocky) you would expect in a free radical copolymerization of the following monomer pairs ... 

An examination of reported reactivity ratios (Table 6) shows that the behaviour rj > 1, r2 1 or vice versa is a common feature of anionic copolymerization. Only in copolymerizations involving the monomers 1,1-diphenylethylene and stilbene, which cannot homopolymerize, do we find <1, r2 <1 [212—215], and hence the alternating tendency so characteristic of many free radical initiated copolymerizations. Normally one monomer is much more reactive to either type of active centre in the order acrylonitrile > methylmethacrylate > styrene > butadiene > isoprene. This is the order of electron affinities of the monomers as measured polarographically in polar solvents [216, 217]. In other words, the reactivity correlates well with the overall thermodynamic stability of the product. Variations of reactivity ratio occur with different solvents and counter-ions but the gross order is predictable. 

The alternating tendency in copolymeri/ation was established on a quantitative basis by Frank F<. Mayo (of the Stanford Research Institute) and Cheves Walling (of the University of Utah) while working in the laboratories of the U.S. Rubber Company. Their work was fundamental to the development of free radical chemistry it showed clearly for the first time the dependence of reactivity on the nature of the attacking free radical, and led directly to the concept of polar factors, working not only in copolymerization and other additions of free radicals, but in free radical reactions of all kinds. 

Problem 32.7 (a) Draw structures to account for the strong alternating tendency in copolymerization of butadiene (M ) and acrylonitrile (M2), (b) Toward - Mi acrylonitrile is 2.5 times as reactive as butadiene, but toward —M2 butadiene is 20 times as reactive as acrylonitrile. How do you account for this contrast ... 

Gradient copolymers of St and AN were also prepared [115,116]. Since St and AN have reactivity ratios that are both significantly less than 1, the copolymerization has an alternating tendency along the backbone with an enrichment in AN at high conversions. Alternatively, a gradient along the backbone can be... 

The effect of initial composition of the monomer mixture the copolymerization rate is shown in Figure 13. A maximum rate was observed at the equimolar monomer mixture. This fact suggests that an alternative tendency exists in the copolymerization. 

If reactivity ratios are particularly disparate then it is possible to form a block copolymer from a batch polymerization. Thus the copolymerization of MAH with S by NMP or RAFT with excess S provides P(MAH-o/f-S)-i(> ocA -PS. There is a similar outcome in other copolymerizations which show a strong alternating tendency such as S with maleimides e.g. or AN. The... 

This chapter describes the synthesis, kinetics, and solution properties for copolymers ofN-vinylpyrrolidone (NVP) with sulfonate ionic and zwitterionic monomers. Examples of the sulfonate ionic monomers are sodium styrenesulfonate (NaSS) and sodium acrylamido-2-meth-ylpropanesulfonate (NaAMPS) an example of the zwitterionic sulfonate monomer is 2-hydroxyethyt)dimethyl(3-sulfopropyt)-ammonium inner salt, methacrylate (SPE). The NVP-NaAMPS monomer pair was exceptional, showing evidence for donor-acceptor character and an alternating tendency in copolymerization. The NVP copolymers containing simple sulfonate ionic monomers e.g., NaAMPS) showed polyelectrolyte solution properties. On the other hand, the NVP copolymers with zwitterionic sulfonate monomers showed antipoly electrolyte solution behavior. 

To produce a copolymer with alternating tendency, the product rjXr2 must be < 1. The examples 4 are two typical representatives. Note the tendency to approach curve 1 when fj is 0.4 in case 4a, and f2 = 0, in case 4b. An example copolymerization of this type is methyl methacrylate, CH2=CCH3-C0-0-CH3, copolymerized with styrene, CH2=CH-CgH5. 

Simultaneous control of stereosequence and molecular weight distribution has long been one of the holy grails in the field of radical polymerization. Nitroxide mediated polymerization (NMP), atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and RAFT all offer control over molecular weight distribution. However, polymers produced by these methods show similar tacticity to those obtained by the conventional process. Recently there have been reports of tacticity control of homopolymers " (which enables the synthesis of stereoblock copolymers ) and control of the alternating tendency for copolymerizations in ATRP or RAFT polymerization through the use of Lewis acids as additives. 

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