Carbon intensity

In addition to measuring TCH for the polymorphic system in question, the proton T value must be determined since the repetition rate of a CP experiment is dependent upon the recovery of the proton magnetization. Common convention states that a delay time between successive pulses of 1-5 X T, must be used. Figure 10B outlines the pulse sequence for measuring the proton Tx through the carbon intensity. One advantage to solids NMR work is that a common proton Tx value will be measured, since protons communicate through a spin-diffusion process. An example of spectral results obtained from this pulse sequence is displayed in Fig. 12. 

Figure 2.1. Development of global energy use per capita and carbon intensity (IEA, 2006 UNPD, 2006).

California Low Carbon Fuel Standard (reduce carbon intensity of fuel by 10% by 2020)... 

Different kinds of carbon-intense fibers are used, the most common being carbon and graphite fibers, and carbon black. As is the case with fibrous glass, surface voids are present. Carbon-intense fibers are often surface-treated with agents such as low molecular weight epoxy resins. Such surface treatments also aim at increasing the fiber-matrix adhesion. 

Carbon black is another of the carbon-intensive materials. It is formed from the burning of gaseous or liquid hydrocarbons under conditions where the amount of air is limited. Such burning favors soot formation, i.e., carbon black formation. It was produced by the Chinese over 1000 years ago. Today, it is produced in excess of 1.5 million tons annually in the United States. Furnace black is the most widely used carbon black. The particle size of this raw material is relatively large, about 0.08 mm. It is soft with a Mohs scale hardness of less than one. 

Fig. 19. Plot of peak intensities of methylene, epoxide carbon intensities against time 751...

Cholli, Ritchey, and Koenig75 characterized the epoxy system DGEBA with solid state C-13 NMR. This study followed the disappearance of intensity of the epoxy carbons and the increase in intensity of the methylene carbons attached to the oxygen atoms. In Fig. 19, these intensity changes are plotted versus the curing time of the epoxy resins. Figure 20 plots the increase in methylene carbon intensities versus the decrease in epoxide group intensities. 

If the objective of free allocation is to compensate existing assets for the impact of new regulation, it should not be required for new entrants. In practice, most governments set aside free new entrant reserves , which economically amount to an investment subsidy. If the volume were unlimited, such subsidies might reduce the product price - which may be part of the aim, but is not actually achieved." Governments use NERs to help support new construction, but giving free allowances in proportion to the carbon intensity of new plants, can bias the incentive towards more carbon-intensive investments (Neuhoff et al., this issue). When projected forwards, such distortions are amplified by the multi-period nature of the EU ETS, to which we now turn. 

This suggests a sharp contrast between the methods appropriate for incumbents, and those for new entrants. Differentiating allocations to incumbents based on their carbon intensity avoids a large redistribution of rents associated with existing assets politically, it is unavoidable and does not in itself distort the efficiency of the system, provided the practice is phased out over successive periods. Differentiating allocations to new entrants based on their carbon intensity has no such defence, runs counter to the objectives of the system, and builds up trouble for the future by failing to encourage low-carbon investments. 

If the marginal carbon intensity equals the average carbon intensity, the MVAS as indicated here is equal to the marginal cost divided by the sector value-added per unit output. In most sectors, in most countries, there is not much divergence between the marginal and average carbon intensity. 

The amounts available in most allocation plans are limited, and the response of new construction too slow and once operational, carbon-intensive new entrants face the same incentive as incumbents to factor-in opportunity costs of production. 

The pattern of impact between the sectors is that the steel and cement sectors are notably more affected, in terms of both profit and predicted emissions savings, than the newsprint sector. In contrast, the petroleum sector is only very marginally affected, due to its relatively low energy, and hence carbon, intensity. 

Once the additional profits due to grandfathering are accounted for, however, all companies benefit from emissions trading under both scenarios presented in Table 4. As coal- and other carbon-intensive companies (such as RWE, STEAG AG and Vattenfall Europe) receive relatively large amounts of C02 emission allowances for free, they benefit relatively more from this effect of emissions trading on firms profits. 

Additionally, if the rules provide for higher allocations to dirtier new entrants, then entrants have an incentive to construct more carbon-intensive facilities than is economically efficient. 

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