1.3- butadiene/2,4-hexadiene

One of the butadiene dimeri2ation products, COD, is commercially manufactured and used as an intermediate in a process called FEAST to produce linear a,C0-dienes (153). COD or cyclooctene [931-87-3], obtained from partial hydrogenation, is metathesi2ed with ethylene to produce 1,5-hexadiene [592-42-7] or 1,9-decadiene [1647-16-1], respectively. Many variations to make other diolefins have been demonstrated. Huls AG also metathesi2ed cyclooctene with itself to produce an elastomer useful in mbber blending (154). The cycHc cis,trans,trans-tn.en.e described above can be hydrogenated and oxidi2ed to manufacture dodecanedioic acid [693-23-2]. The product was used in the past for the production of the specialty nylon-6,12, Qiana (155,156). 

Bis(diamino)alanes (R2N)2A1H were used for the hydroalumination of terminal and internal alkenes [18, 19]. TiCb and CpjTiCb are suitable catalysts for these reactions, whereas CpjZrCb exhibits low catalytic activity. The hydroaluminations are carried out in benzene or THF soluhon at elevated temperatures (60°C). Internal linear cis- and trans-alkenes are converted into n-alkylalanes via an isomerization process. Cycloalkenes give only moderate yields tri- and tetrasubstituted double bonds are inert. Hydroaluminahon of conjugated dienes like butadiene and 1,3-hexa-diene proceeds with only poor selechvity. The structure of the hydroaluminahon product of 1,5-hexadiene depends on the solvent used. While in benzene cyclization is observed, the reaction carried out in THF yields linear products (Scheme 2-10). 

Isoprene or 2,3-dimethyl-l,3-butadiene or 1,3-cyclohexadiene (with Et2NH), 2,3-dimethyl-1,3-butadiene (with n-BuNH2 or piperidine) and 1,3-hexadiene or 2,4-hexa-diene (with PhNH2) similarly give 1 1 telomers in fair to good yields [186]. 

As shown in Table VII, [2 + 4] cycloaddition is the most common reaction pathway followed by Me2Si=C(SiMe3)2, but it is usually accompanied by significant quantities of the product of an ene reaction. As the diene becomes more sterically hindered in its s-cis conformation, as in cis/trans-2,4-hexadiene, the product of an ene reaction predominates. With butadiene, where minimal steric effects are to be expected, the exclusive product of the reaction was found to be the [2 + 4] cycloaddition... 

The explanations for the relative rates of reaction have been based on three factors (1) The rate of reaction increases as the electron density in the diene system increases thus isoprene reacts faster than butadiene and a complex electron-rich 2-silylmethylbutadiene reacts even faster. (2) The rate of reaction increases as the steric hindrance due to the diene substituents decreases thus frans-piperylene reacts more slowly than dimethylbu-tadiene or isoprene. (3) A decrease in the equilibrium concentration of the cisoid conformer results in a slower reaction rate thus cw-piperylene or cis/trans-2,4-hexadiene react more slowly than /rans-piperylene or transltrans-2,4-hexadiene, respectively.175177... 

The most studied area in this held is the dehydration of oxolanes to butadiene. This type of dehydration is catalyzed by various acidic heterogeneous catalysts. For example, 2,2,5,5-tetramethyloxolane can be dehydrated on Pt/Al203 to 2,5-dimethyl-2,4-hexadiene in good yield (Scheme 5.3).34... 

Cyclopentadiene (6) reacted with 105 at 0°C to give 108 (entry 1). At 100°C, butadiene (12) afforded 109 (entry 2). No [2 + 2] cycloadduct was formed in either reaction. Perfluoromethylenecyclopropane (105) failed to react with cis,cis- or cis,trans-2,4-hexadiene at 100 °C, although 110 was readily formed from trans,frans-2,4-hexadiene (106) under these conditions [29] (entry 3). Anthracene (107) added to 105 at 100 °C. The dienophilicity of 105 is exceptional when compared with the reactivity of simple fluoroolefins, such as perfluoro-isobutylene, which require 150 and 200 °C to undergo cycloaddition to cyclopentadiene [30] and anthracene, respectively. 

In addition, perfluoroacetone reacted with butadiene to give 2,2-bis(trifluoromethyl)-3,6-divinyltetrahydropyrane (112) and 1,1,1-trifluoro-2-trifluoromethyl-3,5-hexadien-2-ol (113). 

Linear cooligomerization of butadiene with styrene using ir-allylpalla-dium chloride and BF3 complex of PPh3 as a catalyst at 100°C in nitrobenzene or dichloromethane produced 1 -phenyl-1,4-hexadiene (124) (109) ... 

These cooligomerization reactions can be explained by the following mechanism. First, insertion of butadiene to palladium hydride gives the methyl-substituted 7r-allylpalladium complex 125. Subsequently, insertion of the olefin to the unsubstituted side of the 7r-allyl system and /3-elimination give the 1,4-hexadiene and palladium hydride ... 

This preferential formation of 1 1 adduct to form 1,4-hexadiene in a mixture of ethylene and butadiene was further studied by Cramer (4). He concluded that the results appeared to be the consequence of thermodynamic control reactions through a relatively stable 7r-crotyl Rh complex. 

Scheme 2. Catalytic cycle for Rh catalyst for 1 1 codimerization of ethylene and butadiene to form 1,4-hexadiene.

The rate also varies with butadiene concentration. However, the order of the rate dependence on butadiene concentration is temperature-de-pendent, i.e., a fractional order (0.34) at 30°C and first-order at 50°C (Tables II and III). Cramer s (4, 7) explanation for this temperature effect on the kinetics is that, at 50°C, the insertion reaction to form 4 from 3, although still slow, is no longer rate-determining. Rather, the rate-determining step is the conversion of the hexyl species in 4 into 1,4-hexadiene or the release of hexadiene from the catalyst complex. This interaction involves a hydride transfer from the hexyl ligand to a coordinated butadiene. This transfer should be fast, as indicated by some earlier studies of Rh-catalyzed olefin isomerization reactions (8). The slow release of the hexadiene is therefore attributed to the low concentration of butadiene. Thus, Scheme 2 can be expanded to include complex 6, as shown in Scheme 3. The rate of release of hexadiene depends on the concentra-... 

Hexadiene is the immediate product found in the codimerization reaction described above in a mixture of ethylene and butadiene. However, the reaction will not stop at this stage unless there is an overwhelming excess of butadiene and an adequate amount of ethylene present. As the conversion of butadiene increases, some catalyst begins to isomerize... 

The conjugated diene (including the trans-trans, trans-cis, and cis-cis isomers) can further add ethylene to form Cg olefins or even higher olefins (/). The mechanism of isomerization is proposed to be analogous to butene isomerization reactions (4, 8), i.e., 1-butene to 2-butene, which involves hydrogen shifts via the metal hydride mechanism. A plot of the rate of formation of 2,4-hexadiene vs. butadiene conversion is shown in Fig. 2. 

Hexadiene which is formed by 1,4-addition of hydrogen and a vinyl group to butadiene, is the predominant product in the codimerization reaction. However, there is always a small amount (1-3%) of 3-methyl-... 

Butadiene conversion (%) Total C, dienes (g) 1,4-Hexadiene (g) 2,4-Hexadiene (g) 3-Methyl-1,4-pen tadiene... 

The above catalyst system is long-lived and like the Miller catalyst, it formed primarily 1,4-hexadiene, 3-methyl- 1,4-pentadiene, and 2,4-hex-adiene from ethylene and butadiene. A typical distribution of products formed by this catalyst and by the (Bu3P)2NiCl2/i-Bu2AlCl catalyst is shown in Table IX. The improved conversion and yield can be attributed to a better cocatalyst system, as shall be discussed later. Su and Collette s studies are summarized in the following discussions. 

BD = butadiene 1,4-HD = 1,4-hexadiene T/C = ratio of trans-1,4- to cis-1,4-hexa-diene 3-MeP = 3-methyl-1,4-pentadiene 2,4-HD = 2,4-hexadiene. r The yield of 2,4-hexadiene increases with increasing conversion. 

The isomer distributions were measured at <25% butadiene conversion. T 1C = trans/ cis ratio of 1,4-hexadiene 3-MeP=3-methyl-l,4-pentadiene. 

Relative rates were measured by the time required to achieve 43% conversion of butadiene under the same reaction conditions. Yield of 1,4-hexadiene at 43% conversion of butadiene. 

Reactions a and b in Scheme 8 represent different ways of coordination of butadiene on the nickel atom to form the transoid complex 27a or the cisoid complex 27b. The hydride addition reaction resulted in the formation of either the syn-7r-crotyl intermediate (28a), which eventually forms the trans isomer, or the anti-7r-crotyl intermediate (28b), which will lead to the formation of the cis isomer. Because 28a is thermodynamically more favorable than 28b according to Tolman (40) (equilibrium anti/syn ratio = 1 19), isomerization of the latter to the former can take place (reaction c). Thus, the trans/cis ratio of 1,4-hexadiene formed is determined by (i) the ratio of 28a to 28b and (ii) the extent of isomerization c before addition of ethylene to 28b, i.e., reaction d. The isomerization reaction can affect the trans/cis ratio only when the insertion reaction d is slower than the isomerization reaction c. 

The trans/cis ratio of the product must, therefore, be determined at an earlier reaction stage and most probably by the ratio of species 27a and 27b. Steric or electronic factors affecting this ratio will influence the trans/cis ratio of the resulting 1,4-hexadiene. The phosphine and the cocatalyst effect on the stereoselectivity can thus be interpreted in terms of their influence on the mode of butadiene coordination. Some earlier work on the stereospecific synthesis of polybutadiene by Ni catalyst can be adopted to explain the effect observed here, because the intermediates that control the stereospecificity of the polymerization should be essen-... 

In the polymerization of butadiene, Teyssie (52-54) has shown that certain electron donors, such as alcohols or phosphines, can convert tt-allylnickel chloride from a catalyst which forms c/j-polybutadiene to one which produces frans-polybutadiene. These ligands presumably block a site on the nickel atom, forcing the butadiene to coordinate by only one double bond. While alcohols cannot be added directly to the hexadiene catalyst (as they deactivate the alkylaluminum cocatalysts), incorporation of the oxygen atom on the cocatalyst places it in an ideal position to coordinate with the nickel. The observed rate reduction (52) when the cri-polybutadiene catalyst is converted into a fra/w-polybutadiene catalyst is also consistent with the observed results in the 1,4-hexadiene synthesis. 

The isomer distribution of the nickel catalyst system in general is similar qualitatively to that of the Rh catalyst system described earlier. However, quantitatively it is quite different. In the Rh system the 1,2-adduct, i.e., 3-methyl-1,4-hexadiene is about 1-3% of the total C6 products formed, while in the Ni system it varies from 6 to 17% depending on the phosphine used. There is a distinct trend that the amount of this isomer increases with increasing donor property of the phosphine ligands (see Table X). The quantity of 3-methyl-1,4-pentadiene produced is not affected by butadiene conversion. On the other hand the formation of 2,4-hexadienes which consists of three geometric isomers—trans-trans, trans-cis, and cis-cis—is controlled by butadiene conversion. However, the double-bond isomerization reaction of 1,4-hexadiene to 2,4-hexadiene by the nickel catalyst is significantly slower than that by the Rh catalyst. Thus at the same level of butadiene conversion, the nickel catalyst produces significantly less 2,4-hexadiene (see Fig. 2). 

Reaction conditions toluene 50 ml, butadiene 70 ml, Co(acac)3 1 mmole, aluminum compound 8 mmoles, ethylene 50 kg/cm2. c HD = Hexadiene. 

---