Information biological

There are two distinct problems to be considered regarding the genetic code the replication of DNA and the synthesis of RNA, on one hand, and the synthesis of proteins, on the other. Numerous contributions have been made towards the solution of these problems. Being concerned here with the quantum mechanical aspects, it is not possible to review them, but special mention should be made to the work13 carried out by the groups of Crick, Khorana, Nirenberg, and Ochoa. 

The biological information contained in the molecule of DNA is transferred during its replication and also during the production of w-RNA and s-RNA, the nucleic acids that intervene in the synthesis of proteins. The hypothesis generally accepted regarding this process is that, first of all, the two strands in DNA separate from each other. The second step towards the replication or the synthesis of RNA involves the formation of hydrogen bonds with new nucleotides14. A theoretical interpretation of this phase of the information transfer has still to be developed. 

13 Some of the more recent references are collected in Appendix II. In addition it must be mentioned that Gavrilov and Zograf (1963) have presented a very detailed review on the nature of the genetic code. See also the work of Holley (1966). 

The problem of the genetic code in relation to the synthesis of proteins consists in the way in which the m-RNA and the s-RNA interact in order to determine the different protein sequences. 

The sequence of nucleotides in w-RNA apparently determines the order in which aminoacids appear in a protein. It is currently assumed that a codon , i.e., a sequence of three nucleotides in w-RNA, associates with a trinucleotide group (designated as anticodon ) of the s-RNA. 

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Synaptic transmission is the transfer of biological information across synapses. Drugs that influence synaptic transmission play an eminent role in therapy, for two reasons. First, the nervous system controls all tissues. Second, with few exceptions synaptic transmission is chemical, operating by means of transmitter substances, and synapses therefore provide a large number of drug targets, such as the enzymes that synthesize the transmitter. However, the importance of... 

The US regulates animal trials mainly through the requirement to inform the authorities before non-approved veterinary pharmaceuticals are shipped to trial sites. Depending on whether it is classified as a drug or a biologic, information must be submitted to either the FDA Center for Veterinary Medicines (CVM) or the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Center for Veterinary Biologies (CVB). 

Use of biochemical and biological information for bioprocesses is also significant to the advancement of BRE. Here, the information on the signal transduction from external Ca was utilized for regulation of ginsenoside biosynthetic pathway of cultured cells of P. notoginseng. A quantitative study on the effects of external calcium and calcium sensors was conducted to... 

The Physiome Project should be viewed as both a vision and a route. It has been portrayed as consisting of two parts (Bassingthwaighte et al. 1998) (i) the databasing of biological information (the Mechanic s touch ), and (ii) the development of descriptive and, ultimately, analytical models of biological function (the Orbiter s view ). These are by no means sequential stages of the development. 

Sarkar, S. (1996a), Biological information a skeptical look at some central dogmas of molecular biology , in S. Sarkar (Ed.), The Philosophy and History of Molecular Biology New Perspectives, Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 187-231... 

Of course, as the generation of biological information has moved towards high-throughput approaches, ADME/PK has also needed to aspire to similar expectations. This has led to significant automation and simplification of the ADME... 

Griseofulvin is listed in the following compendia The United States Pharmacopia (1) The British Pharmacoepia (2) The Europeon Pharmacoepia (3) and the Merck Index (4). A previously published review (5) is a good source for physical and chemical data, production, use, occurrence and biological information. 

All MS technologies require the establishment of method-specific mass libraries so that compounds in the spectra can be identified [212], a tedious task that has been restricted to large laboratories. Nevertheless, some of these efforts are driven by the metabolomics community, thereby requiring some sort of standardization to conduct comparable experiments, as has been proposed with the ArMet standard [216], Last but not the least, metabolomics experiments generate large amounts of data that need sophisticated analysis methods to extract biological information, usually based on multidimensional statistics [3, 5, 58, 209, 217, 218]. Metabolomics experiments as the basis for an analysis of the possible dynamics of metabolic networks are discussed in Section VIII. 

Figure 26. The proposed workflow of structural kinetic modeling Rather than constructing a single kinetic model, an ensemble of possible models is evaluated, such that the ensemble is consistent with available biological information and additional constraints of interest. The analysis is based upon a (thermodynamically consistent) metabolic state, characterized by a vector S° and the associated flux v° v(S°). Since based only on the an evaluation of the eigenvalues of the Jacobian matrix are evaluated, the approach is (computationally) applicable to large scale system. Redrawn and adapted from Ref. 296.

Reading the literature on mammalian semiochemistry over the past decade, a chemist is impressed by the enormous volume of biological information that has been gathered in well planned and meticulously executed studies of the modulation of the behavior of mammals by the chemicals released by con-specifics. One cannot, however, escape the impression that the chemical basis of many of these studies is lacking. Some of the problem areas were pointed out in the foregoing sections. To a certain extent there seems to be lack of appreciation of the diffusion rates of compounds with different volatilities and of the extent to which these differences can influence the outcome of behavioral tests. It is difficult to make an estimate of the persistence of semiochemicals that are released into the laboratory atmosphere or that are left on objects or surfaces in arenas in which tests are conducted. From what is known about the evaporation rate of some heavy compounds that are considered to be semiochemicals, it could take several weeks or even months for these compounds to be depleted to levels that cannot be detected by currently available instrumentation levels at which meaningful information could still be available to experimental animals. This then leaves the question unanswered as to when it would be safe to conduct behavioral experiments in a laboratory or arena that had been occupied by conspecifics. 

Endo, K., D. Walton, R.A. Reyment, and G.B. Curry. 1995. Fossil intra-crystalline biomolecules of brachiopod shells Diagenesis and preserved geo-biological information. Organic Geochemistry 13 661-673. 

PC. Marijuan, Enzymes, artificial cells and the nature of biological information, BioSystems, 35, 167-170 (1995). 

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