Atmospheric forcing

Both the Newcomen and the Papin pumps derived most of their power from this atmospheric force rather than from steam pressure. Newcomen engines consumed perhaps 32 pounds of coal each hour per horsepower developed, about 1 percent of the energy that burning coal emits. 

In addition to gravity, atmospheric forces act on the ascending rocket, which unlike gravity are surface forces. The surrounding atmosphere flows along the surface of the rocket when in flight. A pressure force is exerted perpendicular to each surface element due to the adhesion of air molecules on the surface, while frictional forces arise in a tangential direction, in accordance with the internal friction of the air. 

Changes in the biosphere are also important indicators of climate. One is the bleaching of corals. It is important to recognize that enhanced atmospheric forcings on coral reefs lead not to their disappearance but to their transformation into more resistant species (Hughes et al., 2003). Changes in seawater properties are another indicator (Broecker, 2003). 

An analysis of the recent observation data [30,31] shows that baroclinic Rossby waves that are generated off the eastern coasts in the northern parts of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans in a period of about a year represent their dominant non-stationary dynamical response to the annual cycle of the atmospheric forcing in the latitudinal range from 10-15° to 45-50°N. In so doing, their mean phase velocities (0.02-0.03 ms 1 at 40-45°N) are higher than the theoretical values (about 0.01 ms-1). A similar situation is observed in the Black Sea as well [27]. In [32], several reasons of this phenomenon were listed such as the interaction with more large-scale non-stationary processes, topographic and nonlinear effects, and insufficient duration and spatiotemporal resolution of the observation data. 

The T,S structure of the Black Sea waters is subjected to a strong interannual variability over a wide range of temporal scales from a few years to a few millennia. In the range from a few years to a few decades, it is induced by the atmospheric forcing both directly, by the fluxes of the momentum and relative wind vorticity, and indirectly, through the riverine runoff and water exchange via straits. 

Keywords Atmospheric forcing Black Sea Interannual variability ... 

P. Betzer, E. Laws and others, Asian Dust Role of dust (Fe) deposition and atmospheric forcing on plankton... 

A correlation analysis between the winter SST and the climate indices NAO, WIBIX, and AO showed the highest coefficients of determination of 0.86 for the Arkona Sea between SST (March) and NAO and WIBIX. They were slightly reduced for the Bornholm Sea and eastern Gotland Sea. The atmospheric forcing of the entire winter season drives the water temperature of the Baltic Sea with minimum temperature in March. Therefore, the best correlation was found for the SST of March compared to the winter season. 

Hind-cast simulations of the last century have been presented by Kauker and Meier (2003) and Meier and Kauker (2003). They show inter alia how climate variability influences the intensity of saltwater inflows via river runoff. A consequent continuation was to force this model system with predicted atmospheric forcing for the end of the twenty-first century (Meier, 2006). 

Another factor that is difficult to eliminate is the direct effect of varying air-sea fluxes on surface temperature fluctuations. It is clear that a sustained horizontal variation in these fluxes (at the sea surface in the Lagran-gian frame of the surface elements) will modify the surface temperature distribution. It may not always be possible to determine if a feature is essentially oceanographic (i.e., forced from below by surface renewal which ultimately, but not directly, depends on atmospheric forcing), or meteorological (i.e., directly associated with variability in atmospheric fluxes). 

FIGURE 12.7 The ammonia fountain display. (Left) The inverted round-bottomed flask is filled with ammonia gas. (Right) When a small amount of water is introduced into the flask by squeezing the polyethylene bottle, most of the ammonia gas dissolves in the water, creating a partial vacuum. The pressure from the atmosphere forces the liquids from the two Erlenmeyer flasks into the round-bottomed flask. The mixing of the two liquids initiates a chemical reaction, accompanied by the emission of blue light. 

Spex 8000 mill, stainless steel vial, ball (21 g). He atmosphere, forced air cooling. 

Three types of statistics give information about the scale characteristics of small-scale motion correlation functions, structure functions, and spectra. These three types of statistics give the same type of information and can be computed from each other. For example, spectra ate cosine transforms of correlation functions. We describe here the properties of spectra only because they have several advantages over the other two types of statistics. First, spectral estimates at different frequencies or wave numbers are statistically independent. Second, the response of stmctures to atmospheric forcing can be calcnlated separately at different frequencies, given the transfer functions of the system. However, this scheme is limited to hn-ear interactions between the atmospheric motions and the systems. 

Direct generation of long waves by atmospheric forcing (pressure and wind) on the sea surface. 

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