Apollo astronauts

Lunar soil samples being collected by an Apollo astronaut. Figure courtesy of NASA. 

The Apollo astronauts returned 382 kg of lunar sample to Earth, and this collection was supplemented by 326 g of soil samples collected by the Soviet Luna landers. The first lunar meteorite was found in 1982 in Antarctica. Since that time, over 120 lunar meteorites representing about 60 different fall events have been collected. The total mass of these meteorites is -48 kg. About one-third of these meteorites were recovered in Antarctica by American and Japanese teams, and most of the rest were recovered in the deserts of North Africa and Oman. The lunar meteorites have significantly expanded the areas of the Moon from which we have samples. 

The Clementine orbiter obtained high-resolution multispectral reflectance data. In comparing spectra with soil compositions at 39 locations sampled by Apollo astronauts, Blewett et al. (1997) determined a correlation between specific spectral features and chemical composition. This enabled Lucey et al. (1998) to develop an algorithm to estimate accurate FeO and Ti02 abundances from Clementine spectra. 

Briefly describe the major groups of lunar rocks returned by Apollo astronauts and how they relate to groups determined from orbital measurements. 

The analysis of real samples, such as the soil and rock samples brought back to the earth from the moon by the Apollo astronauts, is usually quite complex compared with the analysis of materials studied in laboratory courses. As discussed in this chapter, the choice of analytical method for real materials is not simple, often requiring consultation of the literature, modification of existing methods, and extensive testing to determine method validity. 

The photo shows one of the Apollo astronauts taking a core sample of the lunar soil. Such samples were valuable in determining the geological history of the moon and its relationship to the history of the earth. 

Taylor GR. Recovery of medically important microorganisms from Apollo astronauts. Aerosp Med 1974 45 824-8. 

Analysis of lunar rocks returned by Apollo astronauts reveals the presence of three major minerals, which occur in concentrations of more than 10 percent in some rocks an equal number of minor minerals, which occur in concentrations of 1 and 10 percent and a somewhat larger number of minerals that occur in only very small quantities, always less than 1 percent. The chart on pages 223-224 lists these minerals. Many of these minerals occur in more than one form. For example, the various forms of pyroxene differ in what cation is present (iron, magnesium, and/or calcium). Enstatite, one form of pyroxene, has the formula MgSiOs wollastonite is CaSi03 and hedenbergite is CaFeSi206. 

The Earth and the Moon were formed just over 4.5 billion years ago. The age of the craters on the Moon, dated from rock samples brought back by the Apollo astronauts, suggests that our planetary system was bombarded by meteorites for at least 500 million years. The bombardment ended around 3.8 to 4 billion years ago. The oldest sedimentary rocks on Earth, which were laid down along what is now the west coast of Greenland, have been reliably dated to an age of 3.85 billion years — a mere 700 million years after the formation of the Earth and certainly not long after the end of the bombardment. 

Although animals have no known senses for detection of nuclear radiation, it has be found that sublethal but large radiation fields can affect animals in various ways such as disturbing the sleep of dogs or causing ants to follow a new pathway to avoid a hidden radiation source. Apollo astronauts observed scintillations in their eyes when their space... 

Thus, natural walking speed is nearly 21/2 times slower (or 40% as fast) on the Moon. If one tries to walk faster than this, one either stubs a toe or must expend muscular effort. Apollo astronauts on the Moon preferred, instead, to move about in a series of low jumps a few centimeters high (McMahon, 1984). 

The chemical analysis of ALHA 81005 in Table 18.10 and the data contained in the report by Hill et al. (1991) define a field for lunar meteorites and lunar basalt in Fig. 18.25 in terms of the Fe/Mn, K/La, and Fe/Sc ratios. Data point 1 in that diagram identifies ALHA 81005 and point 2 is the Calkalong lunar meteorite. The locations of these data points within the cluster of lunar rocks (open circles) that were collected on the Moon by the Apollo astronauts leaves no doubt that ALHA 81005 and Calkalong are rocks from the Moon. The diagram also contains a field defined by HED achondrites (howardites, eucrites. 

Fig. 18.25 Lunar basalt (open circles) collected by the Apollo astronauts and lunar meteorites (solid circles) collected in Antarctica occupy a well-defined area in coordinates of their Fe/ Mn, K/La, and (Fe/Sc) x 0.01 ratios. The achondrites of the HED (Howardite, Eucrite, Diogenite) groups (crosses) lie in a separate field. The SNC (solid triangles) meteorites (Shergottites, Nakhlites, Chassignites) originated from Mars. The sample numbered 1 is ALHA 81005 and 2 is Calkalong which was recovered in the Australian desert. The Fe/Sc ratio was reduced by a factor or 0.01 in order to prevent the data points from crowding into the Fe/Sc corner of the triangle (Data for ALHA 81005 from Korotev et al. 1983 and for the other samples from Hill et al. 1991)...

With the use of rockets, space exploitation became possible, leading to a flurry of interplanetary space missions by robotic spacecraft in the 1960 s and 1970 s, followed by much larger and more capable robotic spacecraft. In the 1960 s, the first communication and weather satellites paved the way for the communication, navigation, and Earth-monitoring satellites that have become mainstays of modern society. Manned exploration of space began with simple capsules on top of converted missiles, evolved to more sophisticated craft that carried Apollo astronauts to the Moon, and then to reusable spacecraft such as the space shuttle. Manned space stations evolved from simple single-mission systems launched by the Soviet Union in the 1970 s to the International Space Station, constructed during the first decade of the twenty-first century. Even telescopes took to space, with a number of astronomical satellites. 

Chaikin, Andrew. A Man on the Moon The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts. New York Penguin Group, 1998. 

Although the photographs taken by the Gemini and Apollo astronauts are known the world over, it will be useful here to recall some of their experimental results. 

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