Anthrax forms

The anthrax toxin is a tripartite toxin and consists ofthe binding component protective antigen (PA), the lethal factor (LF), which is a metalloprotease, and the edema factor (EF), which is a calmodulin-dependent adenylyl-cyclase. Both enzyme components are translocated via PA into target cells. PA is activated by furin-induced cleavage and forms heptamers, which are similar to the binding components of C2 toxin and iota toxin. In the low pH compartment of endosomes, the heptamers form pores to allow translocation of LF and EF. LF cleaves six of the seven MEKs (MAPK-kinases) thereby inhibiting these enzymes. The functional consequence is the blockade of the MAPK pathways that control cell proliferation, differentiation, inflammation, stress response, and survival. Whether this is the reason for the LT-induced cell death of macrophages is not clear [1]. 

Rickettsia can be stored as freeze-dried powders. In this form, they are easy to disperse. However, because they are living organisms and can be killed during the dispersal process there are limitations to the methods that can be used. They can also be stored and dispersed via infected vectors (e.g., lice, ticks). In most cases, large-scale attacks will be clandestine and only detected through epidemiological analysis of resulting disease patterns. Localized or small-scale attacks may take the form of "anthrax" letters. Even in these cases, without the inclusion of a threat the attack may go unnoticed until the disease appears in exposed individuals (e.g., the initial 2001 anthrax attack at American Media Inc., which claimed the life of Robert Stevens). 

Routes of Entry to the Body Inhalation, skin, and mouth. A biological warfare attack or a terrorist incident utilizing anthrax spores disseminated by aerosol would cause inhalation anthrax, a very rare form of this naturally occurring disease. Normal infection could occur through scratches or sores, wounds, eating insufficiently cooked infected meat, or by flies. All human populations are susceptible. The good news is that if you survive anthrax disease the first time, you would be immune to anthrax disease in the future. 

In the fall of 2001, letters containing a sophisticated and lethal form of powdered anthrax were sent to news media outlets and two democratic senators (the letters to the two senators were more highly refined and therefore more deadly). Of the eleven victims of inhalational anthrax, six survived. Eleven people also came down with cutaneous anthrax. Thousands of potentially exposed individuals were prescribed the antibiotic Cipro. The perpetrator is still unknown. This attack demonstrated that an individual could create highly refined anthrax spores, which, if disseminated properly, could infect hundreds, thousands or more. What is less clear is whether the perpetrator or any other terrorist could produce larger amounts (kgs) of anthrax and efficiently disseminate the spores over a wide area. According to the nuclear threat initiative, Producing... 

Depending on the route of exposure to this biological agent, the exposed person may experience inhalation anthrax, cutaneous anthrax, or gastrointestinal anthrax. Any one of these forms can be complicated by meningitis occurring in about 5% of cases when anthrax bacilli enter the central nervous system via the bloodstream and eventually reach the blood-brain barrier. 

This form of anthrax is caused by ingestion of raw or undercooked contaminated meat. The incubation period for this form is 2 to 7 days. The two types of gastrointestinal anthrax (intestinal and oropharyngeal) have different sets of symptoms. 

The symptoms of oropharyngeal anthrax include swelling of the neck, and lesions in the oral cavity (similar to cutaneous lesions), sometimes on the tonsils. Other symptoms include fever, swollen lymph nodes, and inability to swallow. Shock and toxemia can characterize both forms of the disease. The fatality rate for gastrointestinal anthrax ranges from 25 to 60%.3... 

Scientists at the Harvard Medical School have prepared a recombinant form of a receptor. The idea is to use this cloned receptor as a decoy and mop up the anthrax molecules in circulation. This has been confirmed in laboratory experiments, but ongoing studies are needed. 

C. botulinum toxins belong to the AB group of toxins, which also includes diphtheria toxin, pseudomonas exotoxin A, anthrax toxin, Shiga(like) toxin, cholera toxin, pertussis toxin, and plant toxins, e.g., ricin. Moiety A has an enzymatic activity and usually modified cellular-target entering cytosol. Moiety B consists of one or more components and binds the toxin to surface receptors, and is responsible for translocation of the A component into cells. AB toxins are produced in a non-active form and are activated by a split between two cysteine residues within a region (Falnes and Sandvig, 2000). 

Chlorine dioxide is a yellow to reddish-yellow gas that can decompose rapidly in air. Because it is a hazardous gas, chlorine dioxide is always made at the place where it is used. Chlorine dioxide is used as a bleach at pulp mills, which make paper and paper products, and in public water treatment facilities, to make water safe to drink. In 2001, chlorine dioxide was used to decontaminate a number of public buildings following the release of anthrax spores in the United States. Chlorine dioxide is soluble in water and will rapidly react with other compounds. When it reacts in water, chlorine dioxide will form chlorite ion, which is also a very reactive compound. 

Unfortunately, terrorism and counterterrorism are enormous subjects that are not only vitally important, but are also urgent. A terrorist attack can come in many forms the most worrisome of these is airborne bioterrorism. Anthrax distributed upwind of a city is a serious threat that could kill 100,000 people or more. More frightening, however, is an agent like smallpox that is not only infective, but contagious. Past experience with smallpox has proven its efficiency at causing tens of millions of deaths around the world. 

Within the critical care environment, ciprofloxacin may form part of a regimen for hospital-acquired pneumonia and it has been recommended for anthrax prophylaxis. Care must be taken when coprescribing ciprofloxacin with warfarin or theophyllines as the... 

Endospore-forming gram-positive rods and cocci. Aerobic Bacillus (B. anthracis, anthrax), anaerobic Clostridium (C. tetani, tetanus C. botulinum, botulism)... 

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