Alternative fuels history

Wood and other combustibles such as com husks are not the only sources of bioenei with a long history of human use. One of the most popular biofuels is ethanol. Ethanol wreis first developed in the early to mid-1800 s, before Edwin Drake s 1859 discovery of petroleum. The push for alternative fuels during that time was driven by the need to replace the whale oil used in lamps, as supphes dwindled and prices increased. By the late 1830 s, ethanol mixed with naturally derived turpentine yms the preferred and cheaper alternative. 

Kovarik, W., 2003. The 1920s environmental conflict over leaded gasoline and alternative fuels. Proceedings of the Annual Conference, American Society for Environmental History. Providence, Rl, March 26—30. 

Alternative cathode catalysts to platinum have been the focus of many researchers over the past four decades. Numerous reviews have been published on various aspects and types of PEM fuel cell cathode catalysts.2,7-21 In this work we review the major classes of non-noble metal ORR catalysts in acidic electrolytes. The techniques used to study the catalysts, a brief history of catalyst development including major breakthroughs, and possible future directions will be discussed. 

Whether we will ultimately be able to create furniture from curved space, partake of a multidimensional reality, or directly view all of humanity s alternate histories, becomes less of a issue than being able to fuel the imagination with these endless possibilities. 

The twin principles of fuel neutrality and diversity have been enshrined in key federal policies of the past two decades, including the Alternative Motor Fuels Act (AMFA) of 1988 and the Energy Policy Act (EPACT) of 1992. While there are some notable exceptions to this basic respect of market decision making, the effects of non-neutral, strategically oriented policies also remain largely negligible, at least in the context of recent history. 

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells, History, Fig. 4 Alternate geometry tubular cells investigated by Siemens Westinghouse... 

Biomass has been widely utilised throughout human history to provide important products including pharmaceutical products, dyes, flavours and fragrances. More recently, the conversion of biomass into fuels and chemicals has received considerable attention as an alternative to petrochemical feedstocks. 

Despite advancement in the development of direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), some restrictions still inhibit their large-scale commercialization. This chapter has discussed one of the primary constraints, that is, identification of appropriate membrane materials. Nafion membranes that dominate the market of polymer electrolyte membranes allow methanol permeation from the anode to the cathode side of a DMFC. This results in serious negative consequences. Three approaches have been pursued in order to resolve the methanol permeation problem. These include Nafion membranes modification, development of alternative membranes and provision of high activity anode catalysts or methanol tolerant cathode catalysts. All the three options have achieved certain degree of success in solving the problan. Of particular interest are the Nafion membranes modification and development of alternative membranes in which membranes with permeability values of 10 to 70 times lower than the pure Nafion membranes have been developed. In general, based on the tremendous research efforts being made to develop DMFCs membranes with the best qualities, we are optimistic that very soon the issue of methanol permeation shall become a history. 

---