Utilization degree

Erosion Loss of utilities Degree of confinement Building structure... 

To put it briefly, the effectiveness factors for parallel equilibrium-restrained reactions cannot describe the utilization degree of catalyst internal-surface accurately. Therefore, the intraparticle distributions of the temperature, the concentrations of species and so on should be taken into account. 

Sorbents. At present, large amounts of phosphate raw material is processed to manufacture phosphorous acid and fertilizers. Fluorine that is present in raw materials evolves into gaseous phase during treatment. It is partially captured by wetted absorbers however, a significant part of it is released into the atmosphere. Since it is a valuable product, very strict regulations are applied to fluorine emission. The increase of its utilization degree is considered to be a very urgent problem. 

The chemical stability and electrochemical stability of current collectors in certain electrolytes have a profound influence on their performance characteristics such as the operating cell voltage, reliability, and lifetime of ESs. Besides, the contact between the active-electrode materials and the current collector may contribute a lot to the ESR of ESs in some cases. Furthermore, the loading amount and the utilization degree of active-electrode materials are also strongly dependent on the morphology of the current collectors. 

The utilization degree approaches unity, if the Hinterland ratio is less than about 10 ... 

The costs for manufacturing fuels and chemicals consist of the variable costs such as feed, catalysts and energy. The variable costs depend on the actual consumption (and thus on the utilization degree) and also on the price of the various streams needed for production. The fixed costs include labor, maintenance, overhead, and above all the provision to recover the investment of the plant and lost interest (capital expenditure). Table 5.5.5 shows a breakdown of operating costs for the example of an ethylene oxide (EO) plant. 

Table 5.5.5 Fixed and variable costs of an ethylene oxide plant for a utilization degree of 100% (annual production rate of 1800001 in 2006) [data from Baerns et o/.(2006)].

The utilization degree where the production costs reach the revenues is the break-even point (for the given example shown in Fig. 5.5.5 65%). For projects with a certain risk of investment, the break-even point should be less than 70%. For detailed calculation of the influence of the utilization degree on the production costs, the assumption of a linear relationship between variable costs and utilization should no longer be used, and we obtain cost curves such as shown in Figure 5.5.6. 

Table IV. Metal Ion Enrichment in the Receiving Phase (W) and the Utilization Degree of the Organophosphorus Carrier (Near) for the Emulsion Liquid Membrane Transport of Transition Metal CationsA ...

Isotherms for the interfacial tension at an aqueous/organic interface show that the new di-(p-alkylphenyl)phosphoric acids 3-6 adsorb at the interface stronger than do commercially available DEHPA (1) or Cyanex 272(2). From the interfacial fluxes for single transition metal cation species transport across a bulk kerosene membrane, the following selectivity orders were derived Zn(II) > Cu(II) > Co(II) > Ni(II) for 1, 5, and 6 Cu(II) > Zn(II) > CoJI) > Ni(II) for 2 and 3 and Cu(II), Zn(II) > CoJI) > Ni(II) for 4. Similar selectivity orders were observed in competitive transport of these transition metal cations across emulsion liquid membranes in which a high utilization degree of the carrier was demonstrated. The di-(p-alkylphenyl)phosphoric acids 3-6 are found to be efficient carriers for proton-coupled transport of transition metal cations from a weakly acidic aqueous source phase across an emulsion liquid... 

Resource utilization Degree to which the amounts and types of resources used by a product or system, when performing its functions meet requirements... 

Specifying the hot utility or cold utility or AT m fixes the relative position of the two curves. As with the simple problem in Fig. 6.2, the relative position of the two curves is a degree of freedom at our disposal. Again, the relative position of the two curves can be changed by moving them horizontally relative to each other. Clearly, to consider heat recovery from hot streams into cold, the hot composite must be in a position such that everywhere it is above the cold composite for feasible heat transfer. Thereafter, the relative position of the curves can be chosen. Figure 6.56 shows the curves set to ATn,in = 20°C. The hot and cold utility targets are now increased to 11.5 and 14 MW, respectively. 

Given a network structure, it is possible to identify loops and paths for it, as discussed in Chap. 7. Within the context of optimization, it is only necessary to consider those paths which connect two different utilities. This could be a path from steam to cooling water or a path from high-pressure steam used as a hot utility to low-pressure steam also used as a hot utility. These paths between two different utilities will be designated utility paths. Loops and utility paths both provide degrees of freedom in the optimization. ... 

Thus loops, utility paths, and stream splits offer the degrees of freedom for manipulating the network cost. The problem is one of multivariable nonlinear optimization. The constraints are only those of feasible heat transfer positive temperature difference and nonnegative heat duty for each exchanger. Furthermore, if stream splits exist, then positive bremch flow rates are additional constraints. 

These systems have been operated in extremely low quality (and radioactivity contaminated) industrial environments for the past several years without any major equipment or component failures. Utilizing specialized operating/warm-up procedures, they have operated in low grade, out-of-doors, dust ridden, rain-soaked, industrial environments at temperature ranges which greatly exceed the original equipment manufacturers (OEM) specified limits. The systems have been successfully operated at ambient temperatures of minus 10 to plus 103 degrees Fahrenheit without any pre-mature or un-anticipated equipment failures. 

Equation 19 utilizes the Y-residuals, 1) — Y, where 1) are the points on the calculated best-fit line or the fitted 1) values. The appropriate number of degrees of freedom is A — 2 the minus 2 arises from the fact that linear calibration lines are derived from both a slope and an intercept which leads to a loss of two degrees of freedom. 

Figure 3 shows the capacity utilization resulting from the production program ia a multipurpose plant. The aimual percentage of occupation is shown on the x-axis reflecting the overall busiaess condition, and the level of equipment utilization is shown on thejy-axis, reflecting the degree of sophistication of the fine chemicals to be produced. Several conclusions can be drawn ...

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