Type of Information Obtained

Physical Methods of Examination. Physical methods used to examine coals can be divided into two classes which, in the one case, yield information of a stmctural nature such as the size of the aromatic nuclei, ie, methods such as x-ray diffraction, molar refraction, and calorific value as a function of composition and in the other case indicate the fraction of carbon present in aromatic form, ie, methods such as ir and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopies, and density as a function of composition. Some methods used and types of information obtained from them are (41) ... 

Fig. 2.13. Schematic diagram ofthe type of information obtainable from XPS spectra from an Fe-Cr alloy with oxide film underneath a contaminant film [2.57],...

List the types of information obtained from an electrocardiogram... 

Contrast the type of information obtainable in the determination of trace metals by X-ray fluorescence and electron probe analysis. 

We summarize below the types of information obtainable from the substantial number of physical methods, alternative to vibrational spectroscopy, available for investigating the structures of species on metal surfaces. A minority of these, to which we give greater attention, are applicable to work on finely divided metal catalysts. Many of the others provide direction-dependent information and are most effective when applied to adsorption studies on flat single-crystal surfaces. 

Chemical kinetics is a powerful tool that provides unique mechanistic information and deep insight into the activation process that is at the heart of every chemical transformation. This chapter is structured around some of the most important types of information obtained from kinetic studies. The rate law provides the composition of the transition state (TS), kinetic isotope effects (KIEs) can establish whether a specific bond is involved in the activation process, and activation parameters provide information about the energy and entropy requirements. Independent generation, characterization, and reactivity studies of potential intermediates allow one to search for and identify such intermediates in multistep reactions by spectroscopic means or by use of chemical traps. 

Types of Information Obtained Based on Toxicity Assays Conducted for Bioluminescent... 

Research on toxicity using bioluminescent bacteria can be conducted in two ways. Table 9.2 lists the types of information obtainable, depending on the form of the assay. 

Applications of NMR imaging outside medicine are relatively rare [6, 7]. Potentially rather useful applications are in the elastomer industry. This section features some selected examples which illustrate the type of information obtainable by imaging of elastomers. 

The following conventions are used in the tables to summarise the types of information obtained in the various experiments. (F t.v.r ) refers to a measurement of the average energy disposal into product translation, vibration and rotation. JVTiViR means that the detailed form of the product translational, vibrational or rotational distribution has been measured. An entry under (FE > means that information has been obtained about the population of various electronic product states in a reaction, whereas Ne denotes that analysis has been accomplished of the vibrational or rotational states populated in a given electronic state. 

Comparing the type of information obtained on suspensions with that obtained on composites gives useful insight into the types of mechanisms that control creep of ceramic matrix composites. The very large increase in creep resistance of dense particulate composites, i.e., more than 65vol.% particles, suggests that the particle packing density is above the percolation threshold. Creep of particulate composites is, therefore, controlled by direct interparticle contract, as modified by the presence of relatively inviscid matrices. Mechanisms that control such super-threshold creep are discussed in Section 4.5. 

As an initial step, the reports of l80 in-process accidents were viewed. A sianmary of the type of information obtained is shown in Fig 22. The process operation and the probable causative stimuli which led to the accident are given in terms of the number of accidents and the percentage of the total number. Thus the most probable causes of an accident were identified in an accident analysis. The causes varied by process operation and material type. However friction, impact, electrostatic discharge (ESD), and heating were the most commonly identified causative stimuli. 

A number of spectroscopic techniques have already been discussed in Volume 1 (secs. 7.11-13). Here, we will focus on the application of vibrational (infrared and Raman) and UV/visible spectroscopy, fluorescence and second-order nonlinear optical techniques for the study of monolayers. The type of information obtained with these techniques refers to the chemical composition, surface coverage, molecular conformation and orientation, and dynamics of monolayers. 

Figure 2.15. Types of information obtained from nanoindentation testing by CDR. (From Pollock, 1992.)...

Simplifying assumptions made for each technique and type of information obtained... 

The analysis of the microwave rotational spectra of small ring compounds can provide valuable information about the nature of large-amplitude ring-puckering potential functions. The type of information obtained may vary, depending on the potential function. 

In order for emerging methods to be acceptable for use in a regulatory context work is needed to validate them, and to develop QA/QC procedures for their use. There is also a need for dissemination of information on their performance and potential uses within the WFD. This is especially important since the type of information obtained with some tools is different from that provided by current practice. In some cases it may be appropriate to use a battery of tools in water quality management. In this case there is a need for a system to integrate the available information to provide a comprehendible set of data that can provide support for those responsible for risk analysis, and decision making in this area. 

Another type of information obtainable from ESR spectra is the spin concentration in the sample. The spin concentrations of humic acid range from 1.4 X 10 to 1.2 X 10 spins/g (Steelink and Tollin, 1967 Schnitzer, 1978). The spin concentrations of fulvic acids have been reported to range from 3 X 10 to 1.3 x 10 spins/g (Steelink, 1964 Schnitzer and Skinner, 1969). Spin concentrations for humin are not widely available in the litera-... 

Table I. A comparison of physical methods for monitoring changes in protein structure and interprotein interactions involved in aggregation with respect to the protein requirements, impedence of measurement by common buffers, and the type of information obtainable about the protein in solution or precipitate...

There are many forms of psychrometric charts available from various technical sources as well as many manufacturers of process equipment who have tailored the chart for use with their equipment. These charts are useful for determining moisture content in the air at a given temperature and relative humidity or wet bulb temperature. The type of information obtainable from these charts depends upon which chart one uses, because each is designed differently. Usually, accompanying the chart is a set of instructions for use. Please see the references for examples of these charts and the various forms in which they exist. 

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