Synthesis of graphene

Until now, the fabrication of defect-free high-quality graphene in large areas, which is critical for nanoelectronic devices, is still a big challenge. Surely, the establishment of controllable approaches for specific applications is the precondition toward real application. Various methods have been developed and more novel fabrication methods are still emerging. In this section, the most important preparation methods that have been used so far will be discussed in detail. 

---

S. Stankovich, D.A. Dikin, R.D. Piner, K. a. Kohlhaas, A. Kleinhammes, Y. Jia, et al., Synthesis of graphene-based nanosheets via chemical reduction of exfoliated graphite oxide, Carbon,... 

Vinayan, B.P., et al., Synthesis of graphene-multiwalledcarbon nanotubes hybrid nanostructure by strengthened electrostatic interaction and its lithium ion battery application. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 2012. 22(19) p. 9949-9956. 

Chen, S., et al., Chemical-free synthesis of graphene-carbon nanotube hybrid materials for reversible lithium storage in lithium-ion batteries. Carbon, 2012. 50(12) p. 4557-4565. 

Xiangbo, M., et ah, Controllable synthesis of graphene-based titanium dioxide nanocomposites by atomic layer deposition. Nanotechnology, 2011. 22(16) p. 165602. 

Shen, J. Zhu, Y. Yang, X. Zong, ]. Zhang, J. Li, C., One-pot Hydrothermal Synthesis of Graphene Quantum Dots Surface-passivated by Polyethylene Glycol and Their Photoelectric Conversion under Near-infrared Light. New). Chem. 2012,36 97-101. 

Kang YS, Seelaboyina R, Lahiri I et al (2010) Synthesis of graphene and its applications a review. Crit Rev Solid State Mater Sci 35 52-71... 

Ma and co-workers [26] reported the synthesis of graphene/zinc ferrite/PANI composites, which are photocatalytic inorganic antibacterial agents that show great potential and are prepared via in situ polymerisation and characterised using modern... 

F. Guo, R. Hurt, Supramolecular synthesis of graphenic mesogenic materials. Macromol. Chem. Phys. 213, 1164-1174 (2012)... 

Park, J. W., S. J. Park, O. S. Kwon et al. 2014. In situ synthesis of graphene/polyseleno-phene nanohybrid materials as highly flexible energy storage electrodes. Chemistry of Materials 26 2354-2360. 

Wang, W., W. Lei, T. Yao et al. 2013. One-pot synthesis of graphene/Sn02/PEEXDT ternary electrode material for supercapacitors. Electrochimica Acta 108 118—126. 

Figure 7.4 Illustration of electrochemical approaches for the synthesis of graphene flakes using [a] oxidation or (b] reduction of a graphite electrode. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [63]. Copyright 2013, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Fu, C., Kuang, Y, Huang, Z., Wang, X., Du, N., Chen, ]., and Zhou, H. [2010]. Electrochemical co-reduction synthesis of graphene/Au nanocomposites in ionic liquid and their electrochemical activity, Chem. Phys. Lett, 499, pp. 250-253. 

The photochemical reduction has also been applied for synthesis of graphene-metal NPs. In this case, graphene-metal NPs nanocomposites were prepared by the irradiant white light instead of the chemical reducing agent In one report noble metal salts adsorbed on ultrasonication exfoliated graphene flakes, which were functionalized with ionic surfactants, were reduced... 

Hydrothermal synthesis of graphene-ZnS quantum dot nanocomposites. Mater. Lett, 2, pp. 198-200. 

X. Qi, C. Tan, J. Wei, H. Zhang, Synthesis of Graphene-Conjugated Polymer Nanocomposites for Electronic Device Applications. Nanoscale 2013, 5, 1440. 

J. Shen, Y. Zhu, X. Yang, J. Zong, J. Zhang, C. Li, One-Pot Hydrothermal Synthesis of Graphene Quantum Dots Surface-Passivated by Polyethylene Glycol and Their Photoelectric Conversion under Near-Infrared Light. New Journal of Chemistry 2012, 36, 97. 

In the synthesis of graphene-type molecules, dendritic or hyperbranched polyphenylene precursors are transformed into the target molecules through intramolecular cyciodehydrogenation, with concurrent planarization. In this chapter, the various cyciodehydrogenation protocols employed to achieve C-C bond formation will be discussed with respect to their chemistry and applicability towards the construction of graphene-type systems. These transformations include (i) Lewis acid-catalyzed oxidative cyciodehydrogenation (Scholl reaction)... 

Cyclodehydrc enation in the Synthesis of Graphene-Type Molecules 373... 

---