Subsurface ocean

Quite a bit of DOC is also injected into the subsurface ocean via isopycnal mixing in which water is transported down to the top of the thermocline. This subduction is associated with the seasonal formation of mode water, which occurs mostly on the... 

Among places where condensates accreted into significant solid bodies, such as planets, habitable realms have always been rarer than places that were either too cold or too hot for life to exist. Much of our Solar System s mass is still far too hot for life. Most of the deep interiors of the gas giants and rocky planets are too hot, as is, of course, the Sun itself. Most of the surface area of solid bodies in the Solar System are too cold - the icy satellites of the outer planets and the myriad comets and Kuiper Belt Objects on the far outer fringes of the Solar System. In this sense, places like the surfaces of Earth and Mars and Europa s subsurface ocean are indeed very rare places. 

EP, Wagner R, Williams KK (1999) Does Europa have a subsurface ocean Evaluation of the geological evidence. J Geophy Res 104 24,015-24,055... 

Subsurface ocean water advected onto shelf 1.6 x 10 L d l Smoak et al. 1996... 

Nevison, C. D., Butler, J., andElkins, J. (2003). Global distribution ofN20 and the c5N20/A0U yield in the subsurface ocean. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 17(4), 1119, doi 10.1029/2003GB002068. 

In the Jovian system, the namre of the putative subsurface oceans of the icy satellites, particularly Europa, needs intensive future study. Issues include the thickness of liquid layers and ice crusts, the history of communication between liquid layers and the surface, and the brine composition of the liquid. The next mission planned to address these issues is the Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter, which is designed to orbit each of the icy satellites and explore their surfaces and subsurfaces in detail. 

Khurana K. K., Kivelson M. G., Stevenson D. J., Schubert G., RussellC. T., Walker R. J., and Polanskey C. (1998) Induced magnetic fields as evidence for subsurface oceans in Europa and Callisto. Nature 395, 777-780. 

Zimmer C., Khurana K. K., and Kivelson M. G. (2000) Subsurface oceans on Europa and Callisto constraints from Galileo magnetometer observations. Icarus 147, 329-347. 

Barns S. W. and Nierzwicki-Bauer S. (1997) Microbial diversity in modern subsurface, ocean, surface environments. In Geomicrobiology Interactions between Microbes and Minerals, Rev. Mineral. 35 (eds. J. F. Banfield and K. H. Nealson). Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, DC, pp. 35-80. 

The primary application of early radiocarbon results was to estimate the flux of CO2 between the atmosphere and ocean and the average residence time in the ocean. Sufficient subsurface ocean measurements were made, primarily by W. Broecker (Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory LDEO) and H. Craig (Scripps Institution of Oceanography SIO), to recognize that radiocarbon had the potential to be an important tracer of deep ocean circulation and mixing rates. 

Ni fixation is the major input of fixed N to the ocean (Figure 2). N2 fixation is carried out by Ni fixers, cyanobacteria and other microorganisms able to convert N2 into biomass N. Subsequent remineralization of this biomass supplies new N to the dissolved fixed N pools in the surface and subsurface ocean. Field collections of Trichodesmium colonies, the best-known genus of open ocean N2 fixer, have yielded a of c. — 2%o to - -0.5%o. Taking into account the of dissolved N2 (0.6%o in the surface mixed layer), this range in is consistent... 

Taylor, G.W., Burns, J.R, Kammann, S.M., Powers, W.B., Welsh, T.R., 2001. The energy harvesting eel a small subsurface ocean/river power generator. IEEE J. Oceanic Eng. 26,539-547. 

Is it possible to observe a subsurface ocean of Europafrom measurements made at its surface Khurana et al., 2002 [184] showed how electromagnetic and seismic observations made from as few as two surface observatories comprising a magnetometer and a seismometer offer the best hope of unambiguous characterization of the three-dimensional structure of the ocean and the deeper interior of this moon. 

Evidence for a warm subsurface ocean comes from the forms of chaotic terrain and the estimate of the age of the surface (Melosh et al., 2002 [227]). In this context the term warm means that most of the ocean is at the temperature of maximum density (Melosh et al., 2004 [228]). 

Also the possibility of a subsurface ocean on Ganymede, the largest satellite in the solar system is discussed. Ganymede participates in a 1 2 4 orbital resonance with... 

Waite et al., 2009 [350] found that ammonia is present in the plume, along with various organic compounds, deuterium and, very probably, " Ar. The presence of ammonia provides strong evidence for the existence of at least some liquid water, given that temperatures in excess of 180 K have been measured near the fractures from which the jets emanate. Ammonia (together with methanol and salts) acts as an antifreeze that permits the existence of liquid water down to temperatures as low as 176 K. Schneider et al., 2010 [295] searched for sodium in Enceladus water plumes. The lack of observable sodium in the vapor is consistent with a deep ocean, a freshwater reservoir, or ice. The plume particles are the most important source for particles in Saturn s E-ring. The observations are consistent with a subsurface ocean in contact with its rock core. There is no atomic sodium in the vapor however it is present in salts in Saturn s E ring (see also Spencer, 2(X)9 [314]). 

The detection of atmospheres on extrasolar planet is a very difficult task. 71% of the Earth is covered by oceans but up to now it is the only planet with water in liquid form on its surface. Venus might have had water on its early history, on Mars water may exist in a frozen state near the surface and climatic changes have occurred and formed river-like structures that are observed on its surface. There exists the possibility to find condensed water in the atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn and in deeper layers of Uranus and Neptune. Subsurface oceans may exist on several satellites of the giant planets. But how can we detect water on extrasolar planets, how can we detect whether these objects have even an atmosphere ... 

Kuskov, O.L., Kronrod, V.A. Internal structure of Calhsto evidence for subsurface ocean. In 36th COSPAR Scientific Assembly. COSPAR, Plenary Meeting, vol. 36, p. 761 (2006)... 

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