Withdrawal from stimulants

Although the sequential periods of withdrawal from chronic stimulants are an integral part of an abuse pattern, detailed studies are lacking. In this respect, we have recently demonstrated that DA autoreceptor sensitivity... 

Sensations interpreted as pain, including burning, aching, stinging, and soreness, are the most distinctive forms of sensory input to the central nervous system. Pain serves an important protective function because it causes awareness of actual or potential tissue damage. Furthermore, it stimulates an individual to react to remove or withdraw from the source of the pain. Unlike other forms of sensory input, such as vision, hearing, and smell, pain... 

It is well established that nicotine stimulation of the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) pathway is essential to the reinforcing action of nicotine (Balfour 2004 Corrigall and Coen 1991). Considerable evidence suggests that alterations in this pathway may also be essential to the nicotine abstinence syndrome, particularly to its depression-like dimension. During withdrawal from continuous nicotine infusion, rats displayed reduced activity levels and reduced DA content in the striatum... 

Substance-Induced Anxiety Disorder. Numerous medicines and drugs of abuse can produce panic attacks. Panic attacks can be triggered by central nervous system stimulants such as cocaine, methamphetamine, caffeine, over-the-counter herbal stimulants such as ephedra, or any of the medications commonly used to treat narcolepsy and ADHD, including psychostimulants and modafinil. Thyroid supplementation with thyroxine (Synthroid) or triiodothyronine (Cytomel) can rarely produce panic attacks. Abrupt withdrawal from central nervous system depressants such as alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines can cause panic attacks as well. This can be especially problematic with short-acting benzodiazepines such as alprazolam (Xanax), which is an effective treatment for panic disorder but which has been associated with between dose withdrawal symptoms. 

It has been reported that after withdrawal from twelve-to-twenty-four-hour binges of intravenous cocaine self-administration, current thresholds for electrical brain stimulation reward are elevated in animals (Markou and Koob 1991,1992). In addition, levels of extracellular DA are decreased in Acb following withdrawal from prolonged cocaine self-administration (Weiss et al. 1992b). Long-term cocaine use can decrease tyrosine hydroxylase levels, leading to decreased DA synthesis (Trulson et al. 1987). 

Wise, Roy A., and Elizabeth Munn. 1995. "Withdrawal from Chronic Amphetamine Elevates Baseline Intracranial Self-Stimulation Thresholds." Psychopharmacology 117 130-36. 

Severe stimulation reactions were reported in four of six fluoxetine-treated patients with posttraumatic stress disorder, requiring three of them to withdraw from the study Two experienced agitation and worsening of hyperarousal symptoms one patient s panic symptoms markedly... 

Children and adults vary widely in the degree they suffer from withdrawal reactions. Many children are taken off stimulants during weekends, vacations, and summer recess without any serious difficulty. If a particular child is accustomed to these frequent withdrawals lasting a few days or more, he or she can probably withdraw from the medication with little or no difficulty. However, if the child has been taking the drug regularly without breaks for months or years, withdrawal must be done carefully and cautiously. 

Tea and coffee have been popular beverages for centuries, primmly because they contain the stimulant caffeine. It stimulates respiration, the heart, and the central nervous system, and is a diuretic (promotes urination). It can cause nervousness and insomnia and, like many drugs, can be addictive, making it difficult to reduce the daily dose. A regulcu coffee drinker who consumes as few as four cups per day can experience headache, insomnia, and even nausea upon withdrawal from the drug. 

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