Side effects, definition

A commonly expressed definition is Thermal Comfort is that condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment. The definition implies that the judgment of comfort is a mental process that results from physical, physiological, and psychological factors and processes. Dissatisfac tion can lead to complaints and other undesirable side effects. 

Another definition of acids and bases is due to G. N. Lewis (1938). From the experimental point of view Lewis regarded all substances which exhibit typical acid-base properties (neutralisation, replacement, effect on indicators, catalysis), irrespective of their chemical nature and mode of action, as acids or bases. He related the properties of acids to the acceptance of electron pairs, and bases as donors of electron pairs, to form covalent bonds regardless of whether protons are involved. On the experimental side Lewis definition brings together a wide range of qualitative phenomena, e.g. solutions of BF3, BC13,... 

The definition of desired therapeutic and side effects in the case of the benzodiazepines very much depends on the clinical problem in question. The sedative and hypnotic actions are desired effects in the treatment of insomnia, but undesired effects in the treatment of anxiety disorders. Effects that are usually undesired include daytime drowsiness, potentiation of the sedative effects of ethanol, and anterograde amnesia. They are mediated via the benzodiazepine site of GABAa receptors, since they can be antagonized with flumazenil. 

Tamoxifen users present also a doubling incidence of deep venous thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE) (118 vs. 62 cases). This increase is similar to that seen with HRT. There are some aspects of this side effect that should be commented on to improve the management of women eligible for tamoxifen treatment and at risk for DVT (Goldhaber 2005). In the subanalysis of the Italian study (Decensi et al. 2005), the venous thromboembolism definition included DVT, PE, and superficial phlebitis. Most of the VTE that the authors reported were, in fact, cases of superficial phlebitis, whereas the admitted definition of venous thromboembolism excludes this entity. Such conceptual differences, together with differences in age and background characteristics between the four studies, can explain the diversity in the incidences observed. 

Synonyms of adverse reactions generally include adverse medical effects, untoward effects, side effects, adverse drug experiences, and adverse drug reactions. Specific distinctions among some of these terms may be defined operationally. For example, the term adverse reaction is used to denote those signs and symptoms at least possibly related to a medicine, whereas the term adverse experience is used to include nonmedicine-related medical problems in a trial such as those emanating from trauma or concurrent illness. Distinctions among side effects, adverse events, and adverse reactions are illustrated in the definitions of the two former terms. 

Side effect. Any effect other than the primary intended effects) resulting from medicine or nonmedicine treatment or intervention. Side effects may be negative (i.e., an adverse reaction), neutral, or positive (i.e., a beneficial effect) for the patient. This term, therefore, includes all adverse reactions plus other effects of treatment. See definition of Adverse reaction. 

Nicotine is the psychoactive ingredient of cigarettes and definitely accounts for the side effect quality of cigarette smoking. Nicotine mimics the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at one of the subclasses of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Nicoti-... 

Flumazenil s one problematic side effect is that it can trigger benzodiazepine withdrawal including increased pulse, increased blood pressure, shakiness, anxiety, and seizures. Because it is only used in the hospital, supportive medical care is, by definition, available if this occurs. 

In addition to the somatic side-effects of neuroleptics, there are a number of important psychiatric side-effects, such as demotivation or indifference (a direct effect of most drugs, actually part of the definition of the neuroleptic effect). This may mimic the negative features of the illness and may lead to prescriptions of an antidepressant when a reduction in dose or change of antipsychotic may be more appropriate. A second key problem is anxious activation or akathisia. This dose-dependent dysphoric state may lead to an apparent worsening in the clinical picture and accordingly an increase in antipsychotic dose rather than decrease and may be so intolerable as to lead on to suicide. 

Ketoconazole can be used as palliative treatment for Cushing s syndrome in patients undergoing surgery or receiving pituitary radiation and in those for whom more definitive treatment is still contemplated. Because surgical treatment is not always well tolerated by elderly patients, ketoconazole 200 to 1,000 mg/day can be a valuable alternative for the control of hypercortisolism. Common side effects include pruritus, fiver dysfunction, and gastrointestinal symptoms. 

Headache is a common side effect, as are flushing and rhinitis. More serious side effects include definite or suspected myocardial infarctions and cardiac arrest. 

In terms of toxicology and long-term side effects, data in humans are not available and data from animal studies are informative but not definitive. Prenatal exposure of rats to fluoxetine has yielded mixed findings, as reviewed elsewhere (Emslie et ah, 1999). Vorhees et ah (1994) reported reduced litter sizes at high doses, but no significant effects on locomotor activity or per-... 

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