Shift-type counter

A Johnson counter is a shift-type counter. Here is an example of a 3-bit Johnson counter stream. 

Electrochemical reactions are driven by the potential difference at the solid liquid interface, which is established by the electrochemical double layer composed, in a simple case, of water and two types of counter ions. Thus, provided the electrochemical interface is preserved upon emersion and transfer, one always has to deal with a complex coadsorption experiment. In contrast to the solid/vacuum interface, where for instance metal adsorption can be studied by evaporating a metal onto the surface, electrochemical metal deposition is always a coadsorption of metal ions, counter ions, and probably water dipols, which together cause the potential difference at the surface. This complex situation has to be taken into account when interpreting XPS data of emersed electrode surfaces in terms of chemical shifts or binding energies. 

Surfactant Mixing Rules. The petroleum soaps produced in alkaline flooding have an extremely low optimal salinity. For instance, most acidic crude oils will have optimal phase behavior at a sodium hydroxide concentration of approximately 0.05 wt% in distilled water. At that concentration (about pH 12) essentially all of the acidic components in the oil have reacted, and type HI phase behavior occurs. An increase in sodium hydroxide concentration increases the ionic strength and is equivalent to an increase in salinity because more petroleum soap is not produced. As salinity increases, the petroleum soaps become much less soluble in the aqueous phase than in the oil phase, and a shift to over-optimum or type H(+) behavior occurs. The water in most oil reservoirs contains significant quantities of dissolved solids, resulting in increased IFT. Interfacial tension is also increased because high concentrations of alkali are required to counter the effect of losses due to alkali-rock interactions. 

The equilibria described in the previous paragraph can easily indicate that the addition of a Lewis type acid, halogen acceptor, to the parent compound would shift the self-ionization and bring about an increase in the formation of the hetero-polyhalogen cation, whereas the addition of a base would increase the formation of the counter ion, the polyhalogen anion. 

Gorenstein A priori it is not possible to say that a trianionic phosphate is a much better reference standard than a simple monoanionic diester since we know so little about intrinsic temperature dependencies to chemical shifts. Hydrogen-bonding interactions to solvent and electrostatic effects to counter-ions may be quite different between the two types of phosphates and thus 1 am not sure that one "standard" is necessarily better than another. Uhat is important is the relative difference in temperature dependency to P-31 shifts between any reasonable simple model and the nucleic acids. Ue will though investigate your suggestion. Note that our choice of lock standards (P2O or C5F5) also exerts an influence on these measurements (see discussion in ref. 8). 

The variations in Co chemical shifts for salts of the type Co(CN), 3M" " are shown as a function of salt concentration in Figure 1. Whereas, in the presence of H" " or of alkali metal counterions (Li" ", Na" ", K, Rb" ", Cs ), the concentration dependence is nil or slight, use of Q" " counter-ions leads to considerable vatiations, increasing as expected with the number of carbon atoms in the alkyl chains. An approximate treatment of the data, neglecting further equilibria and the change of ion activity with the ionic strength, yields an equilibrium constant - 35 M for the ion padring ... 

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