Science, origins

Shock-compression science originated during and after World War II when experimental facilities for creating planar shock waves were developed, along with prompt instrumentation techniques enabling shock velocity and particle velocity measurements to be made. The main thrust of shock-compression science is to understand the physics and to measure the material properties which govern the outcome of shock-compression events. Experiments involving planar shock waves are the most useful in shock-compression science. 

Mauskopf, S., and M. McVaugh. The Elusive Science Origins of Experimental Psychical Research. Baltimore Johns Hopkins, 1980. 

An overarching goal of modem physical chemical studies is the molecular-level understanding of chemical and phase thermodynamics—a molecular theory of gases, liquids, and polymorphic solid phases of chemically reactive mixtures. Whereas thermodynamic sciences originated in an era when understanding of atomic and molecular phenomena... 

When we are dealing with Alchemy, we are not dealing with the processes of the great Outer-World, but instead, we are dealing with the very secretive microcosmic processes, which form, since time immemorial, the central subject of the mysteries. Therefore, it can be said, and rightfully so, that the hermetic sciences are the oldest sciences mankind has. It is probable that this science originated from a tradition, to which even the ancient Egyptians were in awe of and they depicted them as "Secrets of primeval Times."... 

Kuhn s work has been embraced in part because his depiction of normal science, with its implicit rules for orderly puzzle solving, rings true to so many, and yet it leaves unresolved the issue of how such orderliness may be achieved. Scientific theories that are underspecified, unintelligible, or too complex to apply are of little value. Yet all of the theories heralded as triumphs of modern science originally suffered from such adequacies. Why has such scant philosophical attention been given to how practitioners learn to apply theory, learn to reason with it, and primarily as a result, come to make sense of it (A notable exception is Ramsey, 1997b.)... 

As one of the editors of ""Advances in Polymer Science , originally Professor Kent invited the senior author of this volume a long time ago to write a review on cationic ring-opening polymerization. I regret that this has been accomplished only after Professor Kern s untimely death. 

Disciplines that appear to be unrelated to biochemistry can provide answers to important biochemical questions. For example, the MRl (magnetic resonance imaging) tests that play an important role in the health sciences originated with physicists, became a vital tool for chemists, and currently play a large role in biochemical research. The field of biochemistry draws on many disciplines, and its multidisciplinary nature allows it to use results from many sciences to answer questions about the molecular nature of life processes. Important applications of this kind of knowledge are made in medically related fields an understanding of health and disease at the molecular level leads to more effective treatment of illnesses of many kinds. 

The third effort in the early development in microemulsion science originated with Saito and Shinoda [18,19] in Japan. In their studies on the temperature-dependent behavior of water-hydrocarbon-polyethylene glycol alkyl (aryl) ether systems, a relationship was observed between the cloud point of the surfactant and the solubilization of the hydrocarbon. For aliphatic hydrocarbons it was found that the solubilization of hydrocarbon... 

Which still left the question of what standards scientists consulted when they passed judgment on the contributions of their peers. Good science, original work, always went beyond the body of received opinion, always represented a dissent from orthodoxy. How, then, could the orthodox fairly assess it ... 

An implicit process called the reproduction of subordinate status (Eisenhart Finkel, 1998) has served to keep women subordinate to men by means of culturally encouraging women to value and pursue feminine behaviors and fields of study. Power relations had been preserved. The early ideological constructions and formulations of science originating from ancient prejudices stated in the most modem and approved words (Trecker, 2001, p. 96) have served as barriers to keep women away from the science, mathematics, and engineering fields until the present day. 

Whenever scientists are presented with a useful pattern or system of classification, it is only a matter of time before they begin to ask whether there may be some underlying explanation for the pattern. The periodic system is no exception. Attempts to produce explanations of the periodic system have led to major advances in areas of science other than chemistry, especially theoretical physics. The notion that the atom consists of a nucleus with electrons in orbit around it, which is taken for granted in modern science, originated when British physicist... 

The techniques of surface science, originally developed largely through the investigation of single-element crystalline materials, have since been applied to many multicomponent systems. Of these, surface alloys and alloy surfaces form a significant subset. Both topics are covered in separate articles in this volume. Of aU known alloys or intermetalhc compounds, QCs have been among the most... 

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