Ruminant production contamination

The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in the USA has estimated that Campylobacter and Salmonella are the top two bacterial foodbome pathogens as they are responsible for a total of 2 and 1.3 million foodbome infections every year (Mead et al., 1999). Most of the cases of infection with Campylobacter and Salmonella appear to be due to eggs and poultry, but a significant number of cases are related to beef products (CDC, 2005 Jay, 2000). EHEC does not cause as many infections as the top two pathogens (approximately 100,000 in the USA), but EHEC is frequently linked to outbreaks of diarrhea caused by the consumption of contaminated ground beef (Mead et al., 1999, Rangel et al., 2005). Infections caused by EHEC are the major microbial public health concern related to ruminant food products. 

Phenothiazine [58-37-7] (thiodiphenylamine) is used orally against intestinal nematodes of ruminants and horses. It is used with occasional gastrointestinal upset, hemolytic processes, and photosensitivity. It is used routinely at low concentrations on horse farms to suppress the egg production of intestinal parasites (strongyles) and thus limit pasture contamination and transmission (4). 

Element uptake from soil and transfer into the edible parts of plants have been addressed in several other studies. Soil-to-plant transfer factors in fruit and vegetables grown in various agricultural conditions have been determined for, for example, Pt [100], T1 [101], and various other metal contaminants [102], In a study on stable isotopes of fission product elements (Ce, Cs, Sr), an in vitro enzy-molysis method has been applied to investigate the solubilization of the analytes from fodder in a simulated ruminant digestion [103], The effect of inhibitors of fission product solubility was also considered and essential elements were determined simultaneously to evaluate potential nutrition problems for the animals from the use of such inhibitors. Selective leaching of individual classes of metal complexes with different ligands and sequential enzymolysis have been recently applied to estimate the potential bioavailability to humans of Cd and Pb in cocoa powder and related products [104]. 

Mycotoxin-contaminated feedstuffs could be pm-chased at a bargain price and used as a terrorist tactic in the manufacture of a completed feed. For example, horse or swine feeds could be formulated with a high level of grain by-products that are known to contain mycotoxins. Field incidences of mycotoxicoses not linked to terrorist activities have been reported from the use of mycotoxin-contaminated by-products in formulating ruminant, horse, and swine feeds (Wilson et al., 1990 Osweiler et al., 1992 Riet-Correa et al., 2013). Pet foods have been contaminated with aflatoxins and they caused illness and deaths of companion animals in regional areas (Arnot et al., 2012 Wouters et al., 2013). 

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