Roman Empire, engineering

Finch, J. K., The Architectus of the Roman Empire—Part 2, Civil Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, November 1957. 

Some of the paths may be labeled research and development, pilot plant operation, equipment design, project engineering, equipment fabrication, plant construction, operation, supervision, and management. All of these rather empirical labels may be bundled together in parallel as were the fasces, the symbol of the ancient Roman official. His sticks were bound by two cords—and here, the basic one is process development and design. The other equally important one is Economics, meaning profitable operation. 

The variety of sites encountered by Roman engineers across the empire required the exploitation of all types of indigenous materials, and construction techniques were adjusted to meet as-found characteristics, exploiting strengths and suppressing weaknesses. Rapid weathering revealed defects more quickly and encouraged innovation and evolutionary development. 

Scholars divide Roman history into two main periods (2) the Republic, which extended from 535 b.c., the legendary date of Rome s founding, until 24 B.C. and [2] the Empire, which extended from 24 b.c. until a.d. 476 (22). The Republic was an age of conquest and exploitation of Rome s extensive colonial possessions, a time when Roman engineering achievements were confined largely to Italy. The Empire was a relatively peaceful period in which public works were extended into the colonies remains of some of these engineering facilities can be found today in Spain, France, North Africa, and the Near East (22). 

The creation and operation of the vast empire of the Romans between c. 2,260 and 1,600 years ago, as illustrated in Figure 5.3, involved carbon exchanges throughout the Mediterranean basin, central Europe and the Atlantic seaboard on a scale hitherto unknown. Not least of these was the acquisition of staple foods for Roman legions as the empire expanded, as well as the pressure on wood resources for smelting the large quantities of metal, especially iron, lead and copper, used for military and engineering... 

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