Penicillium acremonium

Microorganisms. For example, bacitracin and polymyxin are obtained from some Bacillus species streptomycin, tetracyclines, etc. from Streptomyces species gentamicin from Mi-cromonospora purpurea griseofulvin and some penicillins and cephalosporins from certain genera (Penicillium, Acremonium) of the family Aspergillaceae and monobactams from Pseudomonas acidophila and Gluconobacter species. Most antibiotics in current use have been produced from Streptomyces spp. 

Fig. 1. Biosynthesis of cephalosporins and cephamycins. a, Cephalosporium acremonium, b, Penicillium chjsogenum, c, Streptomjces clavuligerus-, d, Streptomjces lipmanir, e, Streptomjces wadajamensis, REX is a ring expansion en2yme (deacetoxycephalosporin C synthethase).

Hyalohyphomycosis (Acremonium spp., Penicillium spp., Beauveria spp. and many others)... 

Species included are Penicillium, Beauveria, Acremonium, Fusarium and Scopulariopsis, with an everexpanding list of organisms involved in human disease. 

The elucidation of the mechanism of biosynthesis of penicillin stemmed from the discovery that isotopically labelled cysteine and valine were used in the assembly of penicillin by Penicillium chrysogenum (Amstein and Grant, 1954 Amstein and Clubb, 1957). Cysteine and valine together with a-aminoadipic acid are used by Cephalosporium acremonium to synthesise penicillin N (8.27) and cephalosporin C (8.28). Evidence was accumulated that a tripeptide, h-(f.-a-aminoadipoyl)-L-cysteinyl-D-valine (ACV) was formed as an intermediate. Since this tripeptide is not transported into mycelial cells, it must be synthesised intracellularly and synthesis of penicillin from the isotopically labelled tripeptide was demonstrated using a cell-free system. Clearly, ACV is not produced by a ribosomal synthesis of a protein followed by proteolytic processing. The enzyme involved, ACV synthetase, not only forms the two peptide bonds but also epimerises the valine residue. Thus, incubation of [2-2H]-valine with purified ACV synthetase completely removed deuterium... 

Mantle PG, Weedon CM. Biosynthesis and transformation of tremorgenic indole-diterpenoids by Penicillium paxilli and Acremonium lolii. Phytochemistry 36 1209-1217, 1994. 

Penicillium chrysogenum 7-ACA and 7-ADCA Production 7-ACA and 7-ADCA from new fermentation processes was obtained by transformation of the expandase of Cephalosporin acremonium into P. chrysogenum 19... 

On the one hand, the implication of RNAi may supply an explanation for observations made in the course of strain improvement programs of Penicillium chrys-ogenum and Acremonium chrysogenum, according to which antibiotic productivity can decrease drastically upon amplification of genes involved in antiobiotic biosynthesis. 

The peptidic nature of penicillin was not recognized immediately after its isolation. In its jS-lactam bicyclic ring structure the tripeptide -(L-a-aminoadipoyl)-L-cysteinyl-D-valine is hidden but in 1960 it was discovered in extracts of Penicillium by Arnstein et al. [11]. Experiments on biosynthesis of penicillins in the intact mycelium of the producing fungi did not lead to unequivocal results, due to the poor permeability of the cell wall. Protoplasts, naked cells obtained after enzymatic removal of the outer wall, however, were able to serve in studies with radioactively labeled potential precursors, and in cell-free systems from Cephalosporium acremonium, the route to isopenicillin N was finally revealed [12]. The tripeptide L-a-aminoadipoyl-L-cysteinyl-D-valine first forms the j -lactam moiety and a second, oxidative step closes the thiazolidine ring between the -carbon of valine and the thiol of cysteine (Fig. 9). 

When Penicillium chrysogenum contains an expandase/hydroxylase as well as an acetyltransferase from Acremonium chrysogenum, then 7-aminocephalosporan-ic acid is generated correspondingly. 

P. A. Fawcett, B. Loder, M. J. Duncan, T. J. Biesley, and E.P. Abraham, Formation and properties of protoplasts from antibiotic-producing strains of Penicillium chrysogenum and Cephalo-sporium acremonium, J.gen. Microbiol. 79, 293 (1973). 

Cellulase Trichoderma reesei, Trichoderma viride, Penicillium sp., Humicolagrisea, Aspergillus sp., Chrysosporium lucknowense, Acremonium sp. 

Thermophilic actinomycetes (M. faeni, T. vulgaris, candidus) Micromycetes A. fumigatus, C. albicans, Alternaria, Fusari-um, Penicillium, Aureobasidium pullulans, Cephalosporium acremonium, Acanthamoeba... 

A major infectious cause of death in HSC transplant recipients is invasive fungal infection (Allan et al. 1988 Bodey and Vartivarian 1989 Bag 2003). Beyond the first week after transplantation, fungal infections become increasingly common, being identified as a cause of pneumonia in 12%-50% of patients (Connolly et al. 1999). With increased use of prophylactic fluconazole, infections with resistant fungi have become more common. Other less common pulmonary mycoses (e.g., Penicillium purpu-rogenum, Acremonium strictum and Scedosporium apiospermum) have been also observed. 

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