Particles strongly charged

Derjaguin, B.V. and Landau, L., 1941. The stability of strongly charged lyophobic sols and the adhesion of strongly charged particles in solutions of electrolytes. Acta Physicochim, UPSS, 14, 633-662. 

When the particles are charged, the strong inter-ion forces modify the diffusion. The (Coulombic) force on ion i is then [48]... 

Today, it is recognized that an atomic nucleus consists of a number of protons (particles of charge number 1+ and mass number approximately 1) and neutrons (chargeless particles of mass number approximately 1) bound together by a short-range force known as the strong force. The total charge number is then the atomic number, and the total mass number (which is less than the sums of the mass numbers of the free constituent particles by a... 

B. Deryagin and L. D. Landau, A theory of the stability of strongly charged lyophobic sols and the coalescence of strongly charged particles in electrolytic solutions, Collected Papers by L. D. Landau, D. Ter-Haar, ed., Gordon and Breach, New York, 1967. 

Fossil-organic particles in situ are often encrusted or impregnated by iron compounds. Fe3+-oxides and -hydroxides appear with two strong charge transfer bands in the UV-visible absorption spectra, one at 395 nm, the other at 465 nm... 

When either ion-hydration interaction or ion-dispersion forces were included in the treatment, the results were qualitatively identical to the traditional DLVO theory, which roughly predicts that strongly charged colloidal particles are stable, and weakly charged particles coagulate. Significant quantitative differences, which can account for specific ion effects, could he introduced by either mechanism, when suitable interaction parameters were selected. 

Coagulants are used in precipitating solids or semisolids from solution, as casein from milk, rubber particles from latex, or impurities from water. Compounds that dissociate into strongly charged ions are normally used for this purpose. Blood contains the natural coagulant thrombin. 

The bulk of CRs is assumed to be accelerated in shock fronts of SNRs. The present understanding of acceleration in strong shock fronts has been initiated by Blanford Ostriker 1978 which could demonstrate that at strong shocks particles are accelerated efficiently. The finite lifetime of a shock front 105 a) limits the maximum energy attainable to I frmx Z (0.1 — 5) PeV for particles with charge Z. 

This result reflects both the common decay of potential as the distance from the center of a charged sphere (r/R term) increases, and a more rapid exponential decay due to the presence of the diffuse layer (exponential term). Consequently, the potential of a sphere surrounded by diffuse layer decays with distance faster than the potential near the particle in a dielectric medium, or the potential in the vicinity of a flat interface with a diffuse layer. One can say that the distant regions with low potentials are mostly proliferated around the charged particle, while those with high potentials occupy a small volume in direct vicinity of the particle surface. For potentials at large distances from the surface of strongly charged particles one can use an expression similar to eq. (III. 19) ... 

Com, M., 1966, in Davies, C.N. ed. Aerosol Science Academic Press, New York. Deijaguin, B.V. and Landau, L.O., 1941, Theory of the stability of strongly charged lyophobic solutions and of adhesion of strongly charged particles in solutions of electrolytes. Acta Physicochim. USSR, 14, 633. Dzyaloshinskii, I.E., Lifshitz. E.M., Pitaevski, L.P., 1961, Adv. Phys. 10, 165. Hamaker, H.C., 1937, The London-van der Waals attraction between spherical particles. Physica (Utrecht) 4, 1058. 

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