Observations and Interpretations

In some crystalline polymers chemical shift differences between crystalline and amorphous phases have been observed and interpreted and for several crystalline forms the signals to be attributed to nuclei in different conformational environments have been identified [111, 112]. 

This chapter is organized as follows We first attempt to discuss, in terms of simplified models, how particles carrying functional groups behave in solutions whose variables are known or controlled. This is followed by observations and interpretations on the concentration of trace elements in rivers and how these trace elements are distributed between particulate and dissolved phase. Then, we will consider the regulation of metal ions and of other reactive elements in lakes above all, it will be shown that the interaction of these trace elements with biotic and non-biotic particles and the subsequent settling of these particles will be of utmost importance for their removal from the water/column. Finally considerations will be given to inquire to what extent similar interpretations can be given to oceans. 

The principle of genetic gradients will be most valuable if it is accepted only tentatively and is used as a basis for stimulating new observations and interpreting old ones. We will observe in the course of our later discussions many cases in which it appears to hold and... 

To face these faults, fault diagnosis modules are developed. They are based on the observations and interpretations of symptoms, i.e. the changes of an observable quantity from normal behavior. Fault Diagnosis task can be split in three main steps. 

Reactions are taking place around you all the time. It is important tto be aware of your surroundings and understand how humans interact with these surroundings. Your five senses allow you to observe the world in which you live. In the lab, you only use four senses to make observations. Nothing is ever tasted in the lab. Sometimes tools can extend your senses. When you describe the color, odor, or texture of an object, you are making a qualitative observation. Quantitative observations involve measured quantities, such as 15 g or 2.5 L. It is important not to confuse observations and interpretations in the lab. Observations are made using your senses interpretations are proposed explanations that are based on observations. In this lab, you will be making both qualitative and quantitative observations. 

How do observation and interpretation skills help when working with the scientific method ... 

We have seen that ZTRID can be successfully observed and interpreted for cluster ions. It is of interest to look as well at covalent molecular ions for new thermochemical information. The parent ion of tetraethylsilane illustrates these possibilities. The ion is formed in adequate abundance directly in the FTICR cell by electron impact, and the more abundant triethylsilyl ion is readily removed by ion ejection. Temperatures substantially above room temperature are needed to give measurable ZTRID rates. Figure 10 shows the low-pressure dissociation chemistry at 403 K. At this temperature, some water vapor outgasses in the cell and reacts with the tetraethylsilane parent ion to give the EtjSi(H20) ion, but this competing bimolecular reaction is well behaved and easily allowed for in the kinetic fitting. The parent ion undergoes the ZTRID process. 

The calculated energy difference is 7.5 kcal/mol in favor of cyclohexyl radical according to the 6-31G calculations. Including the entropy contribution lowers this number to around 5 kcal/mol. Were the reaction under thermodynamic control, only cyclohexane would be observed, and interpretations (b) and (c) cannot be correct. 

Derwent, R. G P. G. Simmonds, S. Seuring, and C. Dimmer, Observation and Interpretation of the Seasonal Cycles in the Surface Concentrations of Ozone and Carbon Monoxide at Mace Head, Ireland from 1990 to 1994, Atmos. Environ., 32, 145-157 (1998). 

It was at this point in the Spring of 1773 that Lavoisier embarked on a systematic study of the fixation and liberation of airs, a topic much pursued in other countries but The French Chemists alone seem not to take any part in these important inquiries. The results of this intensely pursued task were published in January of 1774 as Opuscules physiques et chymiques (Physical and Chemical Essays). In the first half of this book, Lavoisier thoroughly reviewed the work previously published on the topic in the second part he described his own experiments, consisting chiefly of repetitions of earlier work, though often with different observations and interpretations. Here for the first time he put into print his view of calcination and reduction of metals. 

Sunagawa,/. Narita, P. Bermema, and B. van der Hoek, Observation and interpretation of eccentric growth spirals,/. Crystal Growth, 42,1977,121-6... 

In recent years Kawamori and coworkers pursued their work on distance measurements in PS n383 509-515. An overview is given in383 detailing distances determined by pulse EPR. Approaches to analyze three-spin systems of PS II by PELDOR have recently been described.514,515 For the distances between Y5 and the Mn4 cluster in the S0 and in the S2 state a pronounced difference was observed and interpreted as a movement of the spin centre in the Mn4-cluster.513 For the S-2 and the S0 state almost the same distances from the Yp radical were found. 

The introduction of heroin, although based on inaccurate observations and interpretation, undoubtedly influenced the trend and objectives of morphine research and marked the beginning of the search for an improved analgesic. During the 25 years after the introduction of heroin, other morphine derivatives were incorporated into medical practice some of which are still being used today. These include dihydrocodeine, differing from codeine only in the saturation of one double bond, hydrocodone... 

In this section, group transfer reactions in which the product molecule A-B is vibrationally excited but still in its ground electronic state are considered. (Transfer reactions that produce electronic excitation are discussed in Section 3.4.) The available experimental evidence is tabulated. Only typical examples are described. The principal points discussed are the limitations that experimental technique has imposed on observation and interpretation of this type of chemi-excitation and the extraction of generalizations concerning this class of reaction. 

S.C. Althorpe, F. Fernandez-Alonso, B.D. Bean, J.D. Ayers, A.E. Pomerantz, R.N. Zare, E. Wrede, Observation and interpretation of a time-delayed mechanism in the hydrogen exchange reaction, Nature 416 (2002) 6876. 

With increasing depth in Earth, the oxide compounds tend to dissociate to simpler oxides and finally only metal alloys are stable at the core. The metal-rock boundary at the core is quite distinct. The density of Earth s metallic core at the pressures known to exist there indicate that it contains a significant fraction of elements lighter than iron. If diamond anvils can be improved, some incremental progress in the observation and interpretation of these trends may be expected. 

Sir Frederick Charles Frank (1911-1998) received his Ph.D. in 1937 from Oxford University, followed by a postdoctoral position at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut fiir Physik in Berlin. During World War II, Frank was involved with the British Chemical Defense Research Establishment, and because of his keen powers of observation and interpretation, he was later transferred to Scientific Intelligence at the British Air Ministry. In 1946, Frank joined the H. H. Wills Physics Laboratory at the University of Bristol under its director, Nevill Mott, who encouraged him to look into problems concerned with crystal growth and the plastic deformation of metallic crystals. A stream of successes followed, establishing his scientific fame, as evidenced by many eponyms the Frank-Read source, the Frank dislocation, Frank s rule, Frank-Kasper phases. His theoretical work has been the foundation of research by innumerable scientists from around the world. Frank was awarded the Order of the British Empire (OBE) Medal in 1946, elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1954, and was knighted in 1977. 

It appears probable, and will be substantiated below, that the effects of C02 and the synergic promotion of one catalyst component by another are but two facets of the formation of an active catalyst through the interactions among its components and the surrounding gas phase. It is the purpose of this article to review the recent observations and interpretations concerning the distribution of phases and elements, the physicochemical state of the catalyst components, the mode of activation of the reactants, and to show that a consistent picture is emerging that elucidates the function of the copper-based catalysts in the synthesis mechanism. 

This paper discusses aspects of the accumulating body of observations characterizing deposition of airborne acid forming substances. Of particular interest are sulfur and nitrogen oxides species. The focus of the observations and interpretation is on subcontinental (or regional) scale phenomena extending over areas of 6 2... 

Read steps 2 and 3. Design a table to record your predictions, observations, and interpretations. Give your table a title. 

Small isotope-effects can be detected by double-labeling techniques, in which the carbon skeleton is labeled with 14C, and the ratio of 14C to tritium is measured both in the substrate and the product. Care must be taken in the observation and interpretation of isotope effects determined from the hydrogen-isotope content of the product. Just as in non-enzymic reactions (see p. 154), discrimination against the substrate containing deuterium or tritium leads to an increase in the isotopic content of the substrate, and this decreases the apparent isotope-effect towards the end of the reaction. 

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