Observable universe

For a polypeptide chain of 100 residues in length, a rather modest size, the number of possible sequences is 20 , or because 20 = lO, lO unique possibilities. These numbers are more than astronomical Because an average protein molecule of 100 residues would have a mass of 13,800 daltons (average molecular mass of an amino acid residue = 138), lO such molecules would have amass of 1.38 X lO " daltons. The mass of the observable universe is estimated to be 10 proton masses (about 10 daltons). Thus, the universe lacks enough material to make just one molecule of each possible polypeptide sequence for a protein only 100 residues in length. 

The entire observable universe, of which the Earth is a veiy tiny part, contains matter m the form of stars, planets, and other objects scattered in space, such as particles ol dust, molecules, protons, and electrons. In addition to containing matter, space also is filled with energy, part of it in the form of microwave radiation. 

Mattila, K Leinert, Ch. Schnur, G. 1991, in B. Rocca-Volmerange, J.M. Deharveng J. T. T. Van (eds.), The Early Observable Universe from Diffuse Backgrounds, Gif-sur-Yvette Ed. Frontieres, p. 133. 

Though the quest to produce more elements continues, amazingly our observable universe is composed of a relatively few common elements. Hydrogen and helium makes up over 90% of the universe. Only six... 

It follows that throughout the observed universe a myriad of negative... 

For example, several redshift surveys, such as those performed by Huchra et al. [28], Giovanelli et al. [29], De Lapparent et al. [30], Broadhurst et al. [317], Da Costa et al. [32] and Vettolani et al. [33], have discovered massive structures such as sheets, filaments, superclusters, and voids, and show that large structures are common features of the observable universe the most significant conclusion to be drawn from all of these surveys is that the scale of the largest inhomogeneities observed is comparable with the spatial extent of the surveys themselves. 

What is the necessary number of e-folds to solve the horizon and flatness problems For the horizon problem, we want that the observable universe today was inside the Hubble radius at the beginning of inflation. Let us assume for definiteness than the Universe was matter dominated since zeq 104 till now then radiation dominated before. The relation between the comoving horizon today rjo and the comoving horizon rjf at some early epoch deep in the radiation era is given by Eq. (7.24) ... 

During inflation, the physical size of the observable universe is almost constant, dirji (i f rjf. However, between the beginning and the end of inflation, the physical distance of two comoving objects has grown of a factor o//ai. Therefore the size of a region which was causally connected at the beginning of inflation is VifF- In order to solve the horizon problem, one therefore need to impose that... 

Since one has initially > Mpi, one expects the number of e-folds to be very large. This means that in chaotic inflation there is absolutely no difficulty to reach the minimum number of e-fold of 60. This also mean that there is probably no hope to see the very large scale structure of the universe in typical models, N can easily reach 105 or 106 the size of the inflationary region we are in is something like e10 ore10 times larger than the size of our observable universe. 

Square root of the number of protons in the observable Universe = 1039... 

Incidentally, the diameter of the Universe we see right now—we call it the observable Universe—is about 1026 meters, which is 1 followed by 26 zeros. You might enjoy comparing this distance to a few other distances for comparison (Table 1.1) ... 

Current theories of the early Universe suggest it inflated faster than the speed of light therefore, we will never see some of the very distant parts of the Universe.17 This means that the observable Universe is only that part that is acces-... 

Our Galaxy is one of billions of similar stellar systems which together make up the observable universe. The total mass of our galaxy is 1.8 x 1011 M . About 10% of that mass is in the form of interstellar matter whose principal constituents are gas and fine dust particles. The dust and gas appear to be... 

For a final comment we go back to the alkane CwH2W+2 isomers mentioned in the Introduction. Davies and Freyd [70] have reported as the largest number of such isomers 1.35 x 10173 (given to 15 significant figures) for C40oHg02. The number 1.6 x 1080 for N = 167 is characterized in the title of the paper [70] Ct67H336 Is the Smallest Alkane with More Realizable Isomers than the Observed Universe Has Particles . 

This space-time model is a conjecture that has been described in detail [28] and will be reconsidered in chapter 7. A new aspect thereof, which derives from number theory, is that the general curvature of this space-time manifold [26, 29] relates to the golden mean. This postulate is required to rationalize the self-similar growth pattern that occurs at many levels throughout the observable universe. 

Today, 473 million billion seconds after the big bang, the temperature of the universe has dropped to three degrees above absolute zero. Embedded in this frigid environment are galactic systems distributed across the far reaches of the observable universe. Each galaxy consists of stars and dust clouds. Each star, each dust cloud in each and every galaxy consists of about 90 percent hydrogen atoms and 9 percent helium atoms. Because of this composition, established approximately 15 billion years (or 473 million billion seconds) ago, the stars twinkle and the Sun shines. 

In the same year that the a y paper was published, another cosmological scheme was proposed to account for the presently observed universe. The architects of this theory were Fred Hoyle, Hermann Bondi, and Thomas Gmld from Cambridge University, who developed it in two papers pubfished in 1948. This theory, called the steady state theory, was the polar opposite of the big bang." Whereas the big bang posited a definite beginning and ongoing evolution, the steady state theory was based on what can be... 

Isolate patient(s) observe universal precautions. Report to local public health agencies (Hardin, 2002). 

---