Naturalistic observations

These range from naturalistic observations in field studies and large enclosures (e.g., Avery Decker 1991 Cummings et al. 1991) to laboratory feeding tests (e.g., Mason et al. 1989) and studies involving operant and classical conditioning (Passe Walker 1985). Conn (1993) provides an overview of paradigms for the study of behavior. 

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Data on antidepressant dmgs are available from a number of sources randomized, controlled clinical trials (RCTs) in both hospital and primary-care populations decision analytic models population-based naturalistic observational studies of usual... 

Furukawa, T. A., Kitamura, T. Takahashi, K. (2000). Treatment received by depressed patients in Japan and its determinants naturalistic observation from multi-center collaborative follow-up study. /. Affect. Disord., 60(3), 173-9. 

Murphy, D., Pelham, W., and Lang, A. (1992) Aggression in boys with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder Methylphenidate effects on naturalistically observed aggression, response to provocation, and social information processing. J Abnorm Child Psychol 20 451-466. 

So, naturalists, observe, a flea Hath smaller fleas that on him prey ... 

REB review is generally necessary for studies of naturalistic observation. However, studies observing participants in rallies, demonstrations, or meetings, for example, do not require REB approval, although issues of privacy must be considered. 

Since eariiest times, peopie must have recognized that many animais iive off other animais. Wrote Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) So, naturalists observe, a flea / Has smaller fleas that on him prey / And these have smaller still to bite em / And so proceed ad infinitum.Anthropologists believe that the initial impetus for civilization through cooperation may have been man s desire to avoid becoming food. 

Gibel A, Ritsner MS. Neurocognitive effects of ziprasidone and related factors in patients with chronic schizophrenia undergoing usual care a 12-month, open-label, flexible-dose, naturalistic observational trial Clin Neuropharmacol 2008 31(4) 204-20. 

Sayer, J.R., Mefford, M.L., Shirkey, J.L., and Lantz, J. 2005. Driver distraction A naturalistic observation of secondary behaviors with the use of driver assistance systems. Proceedings of the Third International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design. Rockport, Maine. 

Drug-driving research can be based on either naturalistic observations or on experimental manipulation. But rigorous control and true cause-and-effect relationships can only be achieved... 

Choice tests are a simple extension of naturalistic observations. Feeding, drinking, or other behaviors can be used as dependent measures. For the evaluation of taste, drinking tests are more sensitive than feeding tests for at least two reasons. First, tastants in fluid are more accessible to receptors than tastants in food. 

A serious drawback of naturalistic observations and simple one- and two-choice tests is that these methods depend on untrained responding. Simply because an animal fails to respond is not evidence that it has failed to detect a stimulus. For this reason, training procedures have been developed. Typically, these methods employ classical or operant conditioning. With the former, the presentation of a stimulus is paired with the delivery of a reinforcer. For example, presentation of an odor is paired with the delivery of electric shock. The shock leads to an unconditioned increase in heart rate or a measurable change in some other physiological response. After several pairings, presentations of odor alone lead to conditional or conditioned increases in heart rate. The concentration of the odor stimulus can then be manipulated, and questions can be asked about minimum detectable concentrations etc. Not infrequently, greater stimulus sensitivities are measured when trained animals are used than when data are collected from untrained animals in simple choice tests. 

Keywords Fieldwork, ethnography, user research, naturalistic observation, contextual inquiry, artifact walkthough, naturalistic usability evaluation. 

Naturalistic observation is best adapted to situations where the opportunity for real time interaction with users in the process of their work is limited. It can also be useful in early, exploratory phases of research. Because of the lack of real-time interaction with users, however, it presents challenges for making sense of your... 

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