Multivalency particle

Based on these observations, in the composition of washing powders, multivalent phosphates are used, for instance, to keep the charged dirt particles from attaching to the fabrics after having been removed. Another example is wastewater treatment where, for coagulation purposes, multivalent ions are used. 

In addition to this, virus-like particles have been generated that contain a form of HBsAg that has been modified at the N-terminus so that it can be utilized to present T- and B-cell epitopes. The fact that the VLPs remained intact suggests that this alteration did not negatively affect the antigenic properties of the protein and that a multivalent response could be made possible. 

Radtchenko IL, Sukhorukov GB, Leporatti S, Khomutov GB, Donath E, Mohwald H. Assembly of alternated multivalent ion/polyelectrolyte layers on colloidal particles. Stability of the multilayers and encapsulation of macromolecules into polyelectrolyte capsules. Journal of Colloid Interface Science 2000, 230, 272-280. 

PB equation is based on the mean-field approximation, where ions are treated as continuous fluid-like particles moving independendy in a mean electric potential. The theory ignores the discrete ion properties such as ion size, ion-ion correlation and ion fluctuations. Fail to consider these properties can cause inaccurate predictions for RNA folding, especially in the presence of multivalent ions which are prone to ion correlation due to the strong, long-range Coulomb interactions. For example, PB cannot predict the experimentally observed attractive force between DNA helices in multivalent ion solutions. 

The higher generation dendrimeric derivative proved more effective in its interaction with liposomes. This behaviour was attributed to multivalent effects, exhibited at a greater extent by this dendrimeric derivative. Under an equal concentration of functional moieties the reactivity is favoured when the groups are located in a smaller number of particles. Thus the dendrimeric materials act as molecular glue causing adhesion of liposomal particles. 

Mahon E, Aastrup T, Barboiu M (2010) Multivalent recognition of lectins by glyconano-particle systems. Chem Commun (Camb) 46 5491-5493... 

The presence of electrolytes can cause severe stability problems during prolonged storage, due to compression of the electrical double layers of the particles (which may cause flocculation) therefore the concentration of electrolytes must be very low. This is especially important for multivalent electrolytes, such as calcium. Consequently, it is essential to control the water quality, and some formulations even contain sequestering agents such as EDTA. 

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