Measures evolutionary

Proteins such as cytochrome c are not good target antigens for the determination of species of origin because the structures of these proteins in evolutionarily distant species are very similar. Serum albumin, on the other hand, is a rapidly changing protein (Table I) that is amenable to complete immunochemical analysis with both polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies (14-16). Albumins from thousands of pairs of vertebrate species have been compared immunochemically, and the results have been used to measure evolutionary distances (22). 

The definition of N as the total length of mobile disloeation per unit volume takes us from the mieroseale (atoms in a erystal lattiee) to the meso-seale (a sealar quantity N. Equation (7.1) then takes us from the mesoseale to the maeroseale in whieh we aetually make measurement of the rate at whieh materials aeeumulate plastie strain. The quantity may also have its own evolutionary law involving yet another mesoseale variable. When the number of evolutionary equations (ealled the material eonstitutive deserip-tion) equals the number of variables, we ean perform a ealeulation of expeeted material response by eombination of the evolutionary law with equations of mass, momentum, and energy eonservation. 

As a guide to the evolutionary history of the continents, Patterson decided to measure the lead isotope ratios of Earth s crust as a whole. As rocks erode, their minerals are collected and mixed in the oceans, where they eventually settle in layers of sediment. Patterson organized a formidable series of experiments to measure the lead isotopes on land, in various layers of ocean water, and in sediments on the sea floor. 

The integration of Protocol measures with those of the existing safeguards systems should be approached in an evolutionary manner and with great care, in order to avoid weakening the safeguards system. 

I suggest that we take the acquisition of the total set of species-typical traits (however that is to be measured empirically) to be a maximum specification of the process of development. Anything more exhaustive than species-typical might entail that new species could not evolve. As a minimum bound, I suggest the following evolutionary specification - development is the acquisition of the capacity to reproduce. It will become clear in a moment why I bracket the process of development in this way. First, though, let us consider the sorts of questions about development at multiple levels of evolutionary transition that must be addressed if we are to understand units of evolutionary transition in terms of the propagation of developmental capacities. 

The value placed on efficiency and predictability, and the institutional pressures for cost-containment, accountability and measurability are enhancing the appeal of reductionist theories. They fit with the tendency to locate social problems in individual pathology. They suit the actuarial mentality that places faith in statistical information as a means to predict and minimize future risk.7 Genetic and evolutionary explanations have become a way to address the issues that trouble society - the perceived decline of the family, the problems of crime and persistent poverty, changes in the ethnic structure of the population, and the pressures on public schools. 

As just described, the most precise measurements of masses come from double neutron star systems. There are currently five such systems known, three of which will coalesce due to gravitational radiation in less than the age of the universe, 1010 yr (Taylor 1994). These three systems in particular allow very precise measurements of the masses of the components, which are between 1.33 M and 1.45 M0 (Thorsett Chakrabarty 1999). The other two double neutron star systems also have component masses consistent with a canonical 1.4 M . It has been suggested that the tight grouping of masses implies that the maximum mass of a neutron star is 1.5 M0 (Bethe Brown 1995). However, it is important to remember that double neutron star systems all have the same evolutionary pathway and thus the similar masses may simply be the result of a narrow selection of systems. 

Reproductive success measured where there is effective contraception is, of course, of limited value in assessing the evolutionary utility of a given human behavior. Under these modem conditions it may be better to measure mate value, i.e., sexual attractiveness, as a proxy for reproductive success (e.g., Dong et al., 1996 Weisfeld et al., 1992). Sexual attractiveness, of course, refers to an emotion and as such is a proximate cause of ultimate biological success. 

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