Mean winter values

Semi-arid areas (0.20 < P/PET < 0.50) highly seasonal rainfall regimes and mean annual values up to about 800 mm in summer rainfall areas and 500 mm in winter regimes. Inter-annual variability is nonetheless high (25-50%) so despite the apparent suitability for grazing of semi-arid grasslands, this and other sedentary agricultural activities are susceptible to seasonal and inter-annual moisture deficiency. 

Wind velocities in winter markedly exceed the summer ones (Fig. 2d). Practically everywhere in the Aral region their mean monthly values exceed 3 ms reaching in some places even 5 ms and more, which makes these territories rather attractive in terms of small-scale wind energy development. Strong winds and loose soils -the consequence of the Aral desiccation - create a serious environmental problem as salt and sand drift from the exposed seabed in addition to transfer of chemicals that were once brought into the sea from the fields with river waters. Every year from coastal areas that were up to quite recently at the bottom of the Aral Sea the wind puts adrift more then 75,000 tons of sand and salts [5] and transports them hundreds of kilometers. This causes progressive soil salinization in the Aral Region. 

Measurements of CO2 concentration carried out in Rome (Gratani and Varone 2005) showed a mean yearly value increase from 1995 (367 29 ppm) to 2004 (477 30 ppm). The daily trend had a peak in the early morning when traffic was highest and the atmosphere was more stable. The annual trend showed a peak in winter, 18% greater than the summer one, whieh correlated to traffic density. The weekly trend had lowest values (414 19 ppm) during the weekends when traffic density was 72% lower. Miyaoka et al. (2007) reported on measurements made in Sapporo in 2005 that showed signifieant diurnal variation (360-400 ppm in sum-... 

Fig. 2.87 Variation of monthly means of H2O2 (in ppb) at Mt. Hohenpeissenberg. Upper grey line linear trend of summer values (May-September). Lower grey line linear trend of winter values (October-April) data from Dr. Stefan Ghge (Deutscher Wetterdienst, DWD).

The extremely hot summer of 2003 led only to an increase of H2O2 by a factor of two above the trend line. The winter values at Hohenpeissenberg show no trend (mean of 0.14 ppb), whereas the summer values (mean of 0.51 ppb) show a trend of about +0.02 ppb yr remarkably similar to the trend found in Harwell (see above). Hence, the increase (based on monthly means) corresponds to 4% yr similar to the discussed increase in Greenland ice cores. The trend, however, is not significant and the few measurements support increasing atmospheric summer H2O2 concentrations. 

The thermal conductivities of the most common insulation materials used in constmction are shown in Table 2. Values at different mean temperature are necessary for accurate design purposes at representative temperatures encountered during winter or summer. For example, under winter conditions with an outside temperature of -20 to -10°C, the mean temperature is 0—5°C. For summer, mean temperatures in excess of 40°C can be experienced. 

Fig. 3 Temperature changes (top) and precipitation changes (middle) in Europe and the Mediterranean, from the simulations performed by 21 global models, for the AIB scenario. Values are differences between 2080-2099 and 1980-1999. Left column, annual mean middle column, winter mean right column, summer mean. An assessment of the uncertainty of precipitation changes is given in the bottom row, by indicating the number of models that give the same sign of change. Taken from Christensen et al. [4]...

Arid areas (0.05 < P/PET < 0.20) mean annual precipitation values up to about 200 mm in winter rainfall areas and 300 mm in summer rainfall areas but more importantly inter-annual variability in the 50-100% range. Pastoralism is possible but without mobility or the use of groundwater resources is highly susceptible to climatic variability. 

MeV. WL-R = 100% x WL/radon concentrations (pCi/1). The dose conversion factor of 0.7 rad/working level month (WLM) (Harley and Pasternack, 1982) was used to calculate the mean absorbed dose to the epithelial cells and a quality factor (OF) of 20 was applied to convert the absorbed dose to dose equivalent rate. For example, from the average value of (WL) obtained from the arithmetic mean radon concentrations measured in the living area during winter and summer in South Carolina (Table I), the calculated dose equivalent rate is 4.1 rem/yr, e.g.,... 

Table III shows seasonal differences of mean radon concentrations in the Mihama and Misasa areas. Mihama had higher mean values in winter and summer than Misasa had, but Misasa had a higher mean value in spring and autumn. Widespread use of air conditioners in Mihama area may account for the high values in summer. In general there was little seasonal variation in these two locations.

Conclusion TVOC concentration for combined indoor/outdoor air was 169.9 pg nr3 and 420.8 pg m3 at residential and roadside site respectively. At residential site, the indoor and outdoor mean concentration of TVOC was of 236.3 pg nr3 and 103.5 pg nr3 respectively. The average indoor concentration at roadside site was 453.3 pg nr3 whereas at outdoor it was 388.4 pg nr3. At both the sites, the indoor TVOC levels were higher than that at outdoors. Mean I/O ratio at residential site was 2.3 with a range of 1.7 to 2.7 while at roadside site I/O ranges from 0.9 to 1.3 with a mean value of 1.1. At residential site, contribution of VOCs at indoor and outdoor was found to be 70% and 30%, clearly indicating dominant indoor sources, whereas at roadside it was 54% and 46% for indoor and outdoor respectively giving evidence of vehicular emission effect. Seasonal trend for TVOC at outdoors was in the order of winter > summer > monsoon whereas for indoors it was winter > monsoon > summer at both the sites. 

Fig. 23 Specific discharge for the four main alpine rivers Danube, Rhine, Rhone, and Po, annual mean as well as summer and winter half-year mean values...

Fig. 1 Time series of precipitation intensity (mean wet-day precipitation in mm/ d) from 38 stations in northern Switzerland during the winter. The blue curve denotes the lower and upper quantile of the station values. The bold line depicts the low-pass filtered (11-point binomial filter) median of all station values. Trends (denoted by the straight red line) are estimated from the time series of medians in the station pool. Figure from [13]...

For precipitation the changes in the various regions differ in all seasons by only a few percent. On the northern side of the Alps, an increase of 8% is expected in winter (11% on the southern side) and a decrease of 17% in summer (19% on the southern side) by the middle of the twenty-first century. In spring and autumn, precipitation increases or decreases are possible. In summer, the area of uncertainty is particularly large. As for precipitation extremes model results indicate that heavy precipitation events of a kind that occur only every 8-20 years nowadays will on average occur every 5 years by the end of the century. The situation is less clear for the summer season. Although the models show a distinct decrease in the mean rainfall, the 5-yearly extreme value shows a slight increase. 

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