Macroscopic finding

The data in Table 5.9 also demonstrate that substantial gross macroscopic findings are rare in minimal acute studies and seldom suggestive of a specific effect. There are several reasons for the lack of specificity. The first is the rather limited nature of gross observations, in that they are limited to broad descriptive... 

Lethargy, vomiting, fasting in the 48 hours before death Macroscopic findings at autopsy... 

Ahn JM, Kwak SM et al. (1998) Evaluation of patellar cartilage in cadavers with a low-field-strength extremity-only magnet comparison of MR imaging sequences, with macroscopic findings as the standard. Radiology 208 57-62... 

The NAs such as DNA usually used in the experiments consist of 10" -1 o nucleotides. Thus, they should be considered as macrosystems. Moreover, in experiments with wet NA samples macroscopic quantities are measured, so averaging should also be performed over all nucleic acid molecules in the sample. These facts justify the usage of the macroscopic equations like (3) in our case and require the probabilities of finding macromolecular units in the certain conformational state as variables of the model. 

It is not particularly difficult to find macroscopic measures of interactions between small molecules of the same type, that is, quantities which are proportional to Wii and W22 in Eq. (8.40). Among the possibilities, we consider the change in internal energy AU for the vaporization process for component i. This can be related to Wjj in terms of the lattice model by the expression... 

To obtain thermodynamic averages over a canonical ensemble, which is characterized by the macroscopic variables (N, V, T), it is necessary to know the probability of finding the system at each and every point (= state) in phase space. This probability distribution, p(r, p), is given by the Boltzmann distribution function. 

The aim of the model is to find the relation between the energy dissipated in growing the crack tip craze, as that is the macroscopic toughness and the local force at the fibril closest to the crack tip which controls the molecular level failure... 

Using the latter as a unit of speed, one finds that c = l/ /2, and is independent of direction and density of the LG [salem86j. The HPP LG thus also furnishes us with our first example of a purely mechanical property that emerges only on the macroscopic level. 

The macroscopic dielectric constant of liquid formic acid at 25° has the value 64, not much lower than that of water. Hence, from the simple electrostatic point of view, we should expect. /c for the proton transfer (211) carried out in formic acid solution, to have a value somewhat greater, but not much greater, than when the same proton transfer is carried out in water as solvent. In Table 12 we found that, in aqueous solution, the value of (./ + Jenv) rises from 0.3197 at 20°C to 0.3425 at 40°C. Measurements in formic acid at 25°C yielded for the equilibrium of (211) the value — kT log K = 4.70. Since for formic acid the number of moles in the b.q.s. is M = we find... 

The results presented here are quite remarkable. The theory underlying derivation of the hydrodynamic equations assumes that all gradients and forces acting on the fluid are small. The MD fluids are under the influence of extremely large gradients and forces. Yet, we find results which are in both qualitative and quantitative agreement with macroscopic predictions. The appearance of spatial structure on such a small scale (10 cm) provides strong indications that fluid dynamics can be understood from a microscopic viewpoint. 

In contrast to other findings [139], a substantial increase in y is observed upon extending the conjugation length (see 99-101 vs 90-92, Fig. 8). However, this increase in 7 goes along with a considerable increase in molecular mass and, therefore, only a moderate enhancement of the macroscopic which expresses the third-order nonfinearity per unit volume, is observed. 

More than 20 years ago, Matsushita et al. observed macroscopic patterns of electrodeposit at a liquid/air interface [46,47]. Since the morphology of the deposit was quite similar to those generated by a computer model known as diffusion-limited aggregation (D LA) [48], this finding has attracted a lot of attention from the point of view of morphogenesis in Laplacian fields. Normally, thin cells with quasi 2D geometries are used in experiments, instead of the use of liquid/air or liquid/liquid interfaces, in order to reduce the effect of convection. 

---