Low-cost carbon sources

Suitable low-cost carbon sources, agricultural/industrial waste material as carbon source hemicelluloses, C-5 sugars as carbon source... 

Classical screening of suitable/new oleaginous microorganisms able to convert low-cost carbon sources... 

Second, most existing large C02 point sources are within easy access to a saline formation injection point, and therefore sequestration in saline formations is compatible with a strategy of transforming large portions of the existing U.S. energy and industrial assets to near-zero carbon emissions via low-cost carbon sequestration retrofits. 

As suggested by the literature review on the production and application aspects of FA, the biological route of FA is preferred over the chemical one, and the scope of FA application is widened after active research on different properties of FA. The fermentation-based production of FA has been given more priority, as it does not carry the toxicity risk element associated with chemical production. Also, given the rising cost of the main raw material maleic anhydride (60-70% of the total production cost of the chemical method) and increasing awareness of a low-cost carbon option for the synthesis of value-added products and environmental pollution, the exploration of novel, cheap, and sustainable carbon sources... 

A variety of shale-protective muds are available which contain high levels of potassium ions (10). The reaction of potassium ions with clay, well known to soil scientists, results in potassium fixation and formation of a less water-sensitive clay. Potassium chloride, potassium hydroxide, potassium carbonate [584-08-7] (99), tetrapotassium pyrophosphate [7320-34-5] (100), and possibly the potassium salts of organic acids, such as potassium acetate [127-08-2] (101) and formate, have all been used as the potassium source. Potassium chloride is generally preferred because of its low cost and availabihty. 

Only about 10% of the total urea production is used for amino resins, which thus appear to have a secure source of low cost raw material. Urea is made by the reaction of carbon dioxide and ammonia at high temperature and pressure to yield a mixture of urea and ammonium carbamate the latter is recycled. 

For many years the catalytic air oxidation of benzene was the main source of maleic anhydride. Obviously, two carbons from each ring are wasted as carbon dioxide in this process. Although some is still made that way, most modem maleic anhydride plants are based on butane oxidation. Because butane is forecast to be plentiful and low-cost, new routes to four-carbon chemicals from maleic anhydride are under active development. 

The electrocatalytic oxidation of methanol has been widely investigated for exploitation in the so-called direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC). The most likely type of DMFC to be commercialized in the near future seems to be the polymer electrolyte membrane DMFC using proton exchange membrane, a special form of low-temperature fuel cell based on PEM technology. In this cell, methanol (a liquid fuel available at low cost, easily handled, stored, and transported) is dissolved in an acid electrolyte and burned directly by air to carbon dioxide. The prominence of the DMFCs with respect to safety, simple device fabrication, and low cost has rendered them promising candidates for applications ranging from portable power sources to secondary cells for prospective electric vehicles. Notwithstanding, DMFCs were... 

The disadvantages are low yields of the product and high costs of the process. The production of flavour compounds using plant cell cultures offers a process which uses a sustainable carbon source, sucrose, which is the major component of the medium. Production using this method may be used to supply only part of the material required, taking pressure off the wild stocks of the plant. However, if plant cell cultures are to be used on an industrial scale a number of conditions need to be achieved ... 

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