Liquids freezing

B. Widom, Interfacial Phenomena, in Liquids, Freezing and Glass Transition, Les Houches Session LI, 1989, Elsevier, 1991, pp. 507-546. 

D. W. Oxtoby, Liquids, Freezing and the Glass Transition, in Les Houches Session 51, J. P. Hansen, D. Levesque, and J. Zinn-Justin, eds., Elsevier, New York, 1990. 

Pusey P N 1991 Colloidal suspensions Liquids, Freezing and Giass Transition ed J P Hansen, D Levesque and J Zinn-Justin (Amsterdam Elsevier) pp 763-942... 

No problems with liquid-waste disposal, water pollution, or liquid freezing... 

We have discovered that a solid can be converted to a liquid by warming it at or above its melting point. Then the solid can be restored merely by recooling. The solid and the liquid are similar in many respects and one is easily obtained from the other. Hence they are called different phases of the same substance. Ice is the solid phase of water and, at room temperature, water is in the liquid phase. The change that occurs when a solid melts or a liquid freezes is called a phase change. 

At temperatures only slightly below the liquefaction temperatures, the liquids freeze. The solids are all simple crystals in which the atoms are close-packed in a regular lattice arrangement. The narrow temperature range over which any one of these liquids can exist suggests that the forces holding the crystal together are very much like the forces in the liquid. 

FIGURE 7.5 A representation of the arrangement of molecules in (a) a liquid and (b) a solid. When the liquid freezes, the molecules lie in an ordered array consequently there is a decrease in the disorder of the system (a drop in entropy). The entropy rises again when the solid melts. 

F. Mezei, Liquids, Freezing and the Glass Transition, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1991, p. 629. 

Phase changes are characteristic of all substances. The normal phases displayed by the halogens appear in Section II-L where we also show that a gas liquefies or a liquid freezes at low enough temperatures. Vapor pressure, which results from molecules escaping from a condensed phase into the gas phase, is one of the liquid properties described in Section II-I. Phase changes depends on temperature, pressure, and the magnitudes of intermolecular forces. 

Phase changes can go in either direction Steam condenses upon cooling, and liquid water freezes at low temperature. Each of these is exothermic because each is the reverse of an endothermic phase change. That is, heat is released as a gas condenses to a liquid and as a liquid freezes to a solid. To make ice cubes, for instance, water... 

Acrylic acid (Propenoic acid, propene acid) CH2 CHCOOH 54 - 1.1 2.5 140 Colourless, Water soluble liquid Freezing point 14°C Polymerizes readily with oxygen Must be inhibited... 

Goetze W (1991) In Hansen JP, Levesque D, Zinn-Justin (eds) Liquids, Freezing and Glass Transition. Elsevier Science Publishers BV, Amsterdam, p 287-503... 

Chandler, D. Quantum processes in liquids. In Liquids, Freezing and Glass Transition, Levesque, D. Hansen, J. Zinn-Justin, J., Eds. Elsevier New York, 1990, pp. 195-285... 

Figure 4.26 shows a cell model of the three phases. Gas in the upper region has a very low density and the molecules are free to fly around. When the vapor condenses into a liquid (shown lower right), the density is greatly increased so that there is very little free volume space the molecules have limited ability to move around, and they have random orientation that is, they can rotate and point in random directions. When the liquid freezes into a solid (shown lower left), the density is slightly increased to eliminate the void space, the molecules have assigned positions and are not free to move around, and there is now an orientation order that is, they cannot rotate freely and they all point at the same direction. 

Melting Solid to liquid Freezing Liquid to solid... 

At the glass transition temperature, the glass melts or an undercooled liquid freezes (Zallen, 1983 Elliott et al, 1986). 

The dashed lines in (7.90) illustrate an expected cooling path for a liquid chosen to be of initial concentration v = xB — 0.1. As cooling proceeds (1), the first precipitate of solid a appears when the cooling path meets the a-liquidus curve. Thereafter, as solid a proceeds to freeze out of solution, the melt is successively depleted of component A and moves down the a-liquidus curve (2) toward the eutectic point. At this point, the remaining liquid freezes to a mix of solid a and /3 (in proportion to eutectic composition), and the mix of solids... 

R. Ludwig and F. Weinhold. Quantum cluster equilibrium theory of liquids freezing of QCE/3-21G water to tetrakaidecahedral bucky-ice. J. Chem. Phys. 110, 508-15... 

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