Production, large-scale, cost analysis

In addition to the availability of affordable, efficient, and long-term reliable membranes, necessary elements for the practical application of MR systems include optimal reactor design, up-scale process analysis, catalyst optimization, as well as reliable, chemically inert and cost-effective sealants. Searching for better membrane materials, developing effective membrane synthesis methods for better quality control - especially in large-scale production - and improving chemical and structural stability of the current membrane materials will continue to be the focus of active research in these areas. 

A modem direct coal liquefaction plant can produce about 0.5-0.6t of liquid fuel from every ton of dry coal. In the cases where the hydrogen supply is also produced from coal, the overall system can produce about 11 of liquid fuel from every 3—4t of coal. China Shenhua Coal Liquefaction Co. Ltd is currently building a 20,000 bbl/day direct coal liquefaction plant in Inner Mongolia, China. The economic viability of this large-scale direct coal liquefaction remains to be revealed. Economic analysis performed in 19903 showed that the process of the two-stage conversion of CTL has a product cost of 38 per barrel. Several areas, such as improved pretreatment and cleaning methods, novel catalysts, and improved hydrocarbon recovery, were identified as ways to lower the cost further.1... 

For every protein purification problem there is always an affinity solution, but cost and safety considerations may render these solutions impractical. As an example, antibodies are widely used for analysis, where only relatively small amounts are usually required, but their production and purification on a large scale for preparative-scale chromatography may be difficult to justify economically. In some cases, Hhybridoma technology may be able to address this problem. Even if production costs are acceptable, the immobilized antibodies may be unstable over the sequence of sample application, elution, and sanitation required for multiple use of the affinity adsorbent. For these reasons, while biological ligands (antibodies, enzymes, receptors, lectin. 

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