Interpretive science

Cornett RJ, Rigler FH (1979) Hypolimnion oxygen deficits their prediction and interpretation. Science 205 580-581... 

Smith, R., and B. Wynne. Expert Evidence Interpreting Science in the Law. New York Roudedge, 1989. 

Niaz, M. (1995). Progressive transitions from algorithmic to conceptual understanding in student ability to solve chemistry problems A Lakatosian interpretation. Science Education, 79, 19-36. 

The oxygen equilibrium of hemoglobin and its structural interpretation. Science 81 (1935) 421. 

Evett IW, Lambert JA, and Buckleton JS (1995) Further observations on glass evidence interpretation. Science and Justice 35(4) 283-289. 

On the problem of expert evidence in court in general, see B. Wynne and R. Smith eds.. Expert Evidence Interpreting Science and the Law (London, 1988). 

The construction of an aberration-corrected TEM proved to be teclmically more demanding the point resolution of a conventional TEM today is of the order of 1-2 A. Therefore, the aim of a corrected TEM must be to increase the resolution beyond the 1 A barrier. This unplies a great number of additional stability problems, which can only be solved by the most modem technologies. The first corrected TEM prototype was presented by Flaider and coworkers [M]- Eigure BE 17.9 shows the unprovement in image quality and interpretability gained from the correction of the spherical aberration in the case of a materials science sample. 

John von Neuman, one of the greatest mathematicians of the twentieth century, believed that the sciences, in essence, do not try to explain, they hardly even try to interpret they mainly make models. By a model he meant a mathematical construct that, with the addition of certain verbal interpretations, describes observed phenomena. The justification of such a mathematical construct is solely and precisely that it is expected to work. Stephen Hawking also believes that physical theories are just mathematical models we construct and that it is meaningless to ask whether they correspond to reality, just as it is to ask whether they predict observations. 

In the nonclassical ion controversy discussed in Chapter 9, there was never any question on either side of the debate about the validity of the observed data, only about their interpretation. Had any of the experimental data been questioned or found to be incorrect, this would have been soon found out because so many people repeated and rechecked the data. This is the strength of science (in contrast to politics, economics, etc.), i.e., that we deal with reproducible experimental observation and data. Nevertheless, interpretation can still result in heated discussions or controversies, but science eventually will sort these out based on new results and data. 

McLafferty, F.W, Interpretation of Mass Spectra, University Science Books, 1996. 

Food Safety The Interpretation of Risk, CAST No. 1992-1, Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa, Apr. 1992. 

S. N. Denting and S. L. Morgan, Experimental Design A Chemometric Approach Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc., Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1987. D. D. Wolff and M. L. Parsons, Pattern Recognition Approach to Data Interpretation Plenum Press, New York, 1983. 

W. G. Schwer, "Purification of Industrial Liquids with Granular Activated Carbon Techniques for Obtaining and Interpreting Data and Selecting the Type of Commercial System," Carbon Ahsoption Handbook, Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1978. 

In spite of the slow development of crystal structure analysis, once it did take olT it involved a huge number of investigators tens of thousands of crystal structures were determined, and as experimental and interpretational techniques became more sophisticated, the technique was extended to extremely complex biological molecules. The most notable early achievement was the structure analysis, in 1949, of crystalline penicillin by Dorothy Crowfoot-Hodgkin and Charles Bunn this analysis achieved something that traditional chemical examination had not been able to do. By this time, the crystal structure, and crystal chemistry, of a huge variety of inorganic compounds had been established, and that was most certainly a prerequisite for the creation of modern materials science. 

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