Immune-evasive cytokines

As previously mentioned, interferons are cytokines produced by cells to protect them from viral infection, and anti-interferon strategies are a part of the immune evasion repertoire of most viruses. These mechanisms include the production of soluble versions of interferon receptors, which act as decoys. These decoys bind and inactivate interferons before they reach their destination - normal, membrane-bound receptors.22... 

Mogensen, T.H., and Paludan, SR. (2001) Virus-Cell Interactions Impact on C3dokine Production, Immune Evasion and Tumor Growth, Eur. Cytokine Netw. 12,382-390. 

Kirk et al., 2001 Nomura Hasegawa, 2000 Sharma et al., 2013 Tumquist et al., 2007). Incorporating therapeutic chemokines and other cytokines as adjuncts in immunotherapy protocols for cancer treatment has been efficacious in alleviating tumor immune evasion and increasing survival (Ardolino, Hsu, Raulet, 2015 Wennerberg, Kremer, Childs, Lundqvist, 2015). 

T cells. Further, they demonstrated that tumor exosomes carry NKG2D ligand, such as MICA (MHC class I polypeptide-related sequence A) and MICE (MHC class 1 polypeptide-related sequence B), triggering a selective down-regulation of cell surface NKG2D. These effects of cancer-cell-derived exosomes may mediate suppression of lymphocyte functions, even in the presence of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-15 (interleukin 15), and therefore may mediate the evasion of the immune response by cancer cells. 

Several animal model studies have focused on the immune response to infection and also to vaccination. Most studies identify antibody titer, but some also show cytokine production or possible mechanisms of bacterial evasion. A focus on immune response studies will help to further define B. anthracis pathogenesis and provide insight into the design of future vaccines and therapeutics. Most countermeasure studies have been conducted on vaccines, because antibiotic studies have typically been performed in vitro. Primary concerns are the length of required treatment, efficient prophylaxis methods, and less complicated dosing regimens for vaccines. In a theoretical bioterrorist attack scenario, it will be essential to distribute effective treatment and prophylaxis to infected or potentially exposed persons in an expedient manner. 

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