Graphs using computer programs

The graphs and examples are geared toward NONMEM simply because NONMEM is the most widely used computer program for population PK/PD analysis. The principles, on the other hand, are quite general and should be easily adoptable for use with other software employing the same methodological strategy as NONMEM does. 

As an option, you can use a computer or a graphing calculator connected to a printer to graph the data. You can use the following instructions or use those that specifically apply to your computer program or graphing calculator. 

The jmethod of O Connell is popular because of its simplicity and the fact that predicted values are conservative (low). It expresses the efficiency in terms of the product of viscosity and relative volatility, pa, for fractionators and the equivalent term HP In for absorbers and strippers. The data on which it is based are shown in Figure 13.43. For convenience of use with computer programs, for instance, for the Underwood-Fenske-Gilliland method which is all in terms in equations not graphs, the data have been replotted and fitted with equations by Ncgahban (University of Kansas, 1985). For fractionators,... 

Always use graph paper or a computer program to draw a graph. 

The bond graph method defines the structure and constitutive equations of the system. Standard bond graph elements are used to build a model of the structure of the system. Suitable computer programs are available to generate the governing equations, and alternative methods have also been developed for deriving equivalent block diagrams, which can represent nonlinear systems. 

Note In order to transfer programs and applications from a computer to your calculator, you will need a TI-Graph Link cable. Programs can also be transferred directly between calculators using a unit-to-unit cable. Refer to the TI Web site or to your calculator s user s manual for instructions. 

The graphs in Fig. 6-21 are based on accurate calculations, but are difficult to interpolate precisely. While they are quite useful for rough estimates, precise calculations are best done using the equations for one-dimensional adiabatic flow with friction, which are suitable for computer programming. Let subscripts 1 and 2 denote two points along a pipe of diameter D, point 2 being downstream of point 1. From a given point in the pipe, where the Mach number is M, the additional len h of pipe required to accelerate the flow to sonic velocity (M = 1) is denoted and may be computed from... 

Obtain power function graphs for the control rules and n s of interest, or OPSpecs charts for the defined TE . Power function graphs and OPSpecs charts for commonly used QC procedures with n s of 2, 3, 4, and 6 are available in the scientific literature, in workbook format, and also from computer programs (EZ Rules and QC Validator 2,0, Westgard QC, Inc., Madison, Wis.— http //vmw.westgard.com). 

Fig. 15.12. I. Representative curve for theophylline using graph paper and A = 216 milliabsorbance units provided by Syva Co.. With the ABA-100 analyzer some of the calibrator points are above the projected straight line. II. A saturation curve for theophylline with the EMIT assay, using the ABA-100 in the normal kinetic mode, showed that the A is significantly higher. III. The data shown in II can be fitted to a Hill equation, using the computer program of Atkins (1973), giving A = 514, //i, = 300 /ig/ml, and n = 0.56. The various instrumental adaptations will result in different values of A, Hn2, and . From Dietzler et al., 1980 courtesy Dr. D. N. Dietzler and Clinica Chimica Acta.

Using computers to produce graphs -never allow a computer program to dictate size, shape and other aspects of a graph find out how to alter scales, labels, axes, etc., and make appropriate selections. Draw curves freehand if the program only has the capacity to join the individual points by straight lines. 

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