Empty space theory

This represents an upper limit for the dimensions of the nucleus. Compared with the estimates for the size of the atom, obtained from kinetic theory calculations on gases, which are typically 4x10 9 m. we can see that the nucleus is very small indeed compared to the atom as a whole - a radius ratio of 10-5, or a volume ratio of 10 15, which supports Rutherford s observation that most of an atom consists of empty space. We can also conclude that the density of the nucleus must be extremely high - 1015 times that encountered in ordinary matter, consistent with density estimates in astronomical objects called pulsars or neutron stars. 

We first present the dynamics of the S2 1C process in pyrazine using the EMDE method. For that purpose, following the general theory presented in Section 9.4.1, we solve the EMDE equations under the assumption that Qi is an empty space (iV = 0) and the = Oi Qi consists of the 176 vibrational... 

In the quantum field theories that describe the physics of elementary particles, the vacuum becomes somewhat more complex than previously defined. Even in empty space, matter can appear spontaneously as a result of fluctuations of Ihe vacuum. It may be pointed, out, for example, that an electron and a positron, or antielectron, can be created out of the void, Particles created in this way have only a fleeting existence they are annihilated almost as soon as they appear, and their pressure can never be detected directly. They are called virtual particles in order to distinguish them from real particles. Thus, the traditional definition of vacuum (space with no real particles in it) holds. In their excellent paper, the aforementioned authors discuss how, near a superheavy atomic nucleus, empty space may become unstable, with the result that matter and antimatter can be created without any input of energy. The process may soon be observed experimentally. 

The electric and magnetic fields are dual to one another and have the same properties in Maxwell theory in empty space. Given the divergenceless vector field B, we have defined the magnetic helicity as... 

Property 1. In a theory based on the pair of fields (, 0) with action integral equal to (118), submitted to the duality constraint (119), both tensors Fap and Fap obey the Maxwell equations in empty space. As the duality constraint is naturally conserved in time, the same result is obtained if it is imposed just at t = 0. 

It is locally equivalent to Maxwell s standard theory in empty space (but globally disequivalent). This means that it cannot enter in conflict with Maxwell s theory in experiments of local nature. 

From a chemical point of view the most important result is that number theory predicts two alternative periodic classifications of the elements. One of these agrees with experimental observation and the other with a wave-mechanical model of the atom. The subtle differences must be ascribed to a constructionist error that neglects the role of the environment in the wave-mechanical analysis. It is inferred that the wave-mechanical model applies in empty space Z/N = 0.58), compared to the result, observed in curved non-empty space, (Z/N = t). The fundamental difference between the two situations reduces to a difference in space-time curvature. 

Ancient philosophers in Greece, India, China, and Japan speculated that all matter was composed of four or five elements. The Greeks thought that these were fire, air, earth, and water. Indian philosophers and Aristotle from Greece also thought a fifth element—"aether" or "quintessence"—filled all of empty space. The Greek philosopher Democritus thought that matter was composed of indivisible and indestructible atoms. These concepts are now known as classical elements and classical atomic theory. 

By now, it was becoming clear that there was a connection between electrons in bodies, the radiant energy emitted by those bodies, and the distribution of that energy in the spectrum. But a more detailed theory with more information was needed. Rutherford had proposed an atom modeled on the solar system, with electrons orbiting around a positive nucleus and a lot of empty space between the electrons and the nucleus. In 1913 the Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885-1962), who worked with Rutherford for four years and on his return to Copenhagen made Denmark a world center of theoretical physics, published one of the twentieth century s most important papers. He applied Planck s equation and the notion of quantization of energy to Rutherford s... 

In previous courses, you learned about the properties of the different states of matter. You may recall that both solids and liquids are incompressible. That is, the particles cannot squeeze closer together, or compress. The incompressible nature of solids and liquids is not due to the fact that particles are touching. On the contrary, the particle theory states that there is empty space between all particles of matter. 

All the statements are included in the Atomic Theory except for the empty space concept of the atom. This was concluded by Rutherford in his gold foil experiment. 

Until now our discussions have dealt with ideal behavior of gases. By this we mean that the identity of a gas does not affect how it behaves, and the same equations should work equally well for all gases. Under ordinary conditions most real gases do behave ideally their P and V are predicted by the ideal gas laws, so they do obey the postulates of the kinetic-molecular theory. According to the kinetic-molecular model, (1) all but a negligible volume of a gas sample is empty space, and (2) the molecules of ideal gases do not attract one another because they are so far apart relative to their own sizes. 

Democritus, 460-370 B.C., was a philosopher who proposed that the world is made up of empty space and tiny particles called atoms. Democritus thought that atoms are the smallest particles of matter and that different types of atoms exist for every type of matter. The idea that matter is made up of fundamental particles called atoms is known as the atomic theory of matter. 

We now note that, according to the principles of quantum theory, not the path, but causality in the transmission of information from one object to another is important [3,10-13,31]. In the Hertz experiment with two atoms separated by empty space, this means that the detecting atom cannot be excited earlier than in d/c seconds after the emission of a photon by the first atom. Here d denotes the interatomic distance. Such a causality has been proven recently by Kaup and Rupasov [96]. Here we briefly discuss their proof. 

Free volume theories emphasize the amount of "empty space" [43-45] available for diffusion. The theory of Vrentas and Duda [46-53] is an especially elaborate example of such theories. 

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