Elephants behaviors

African Elephant Behavior at Northern Tanzania and AENP... 

Schulte, B.A. (2006) Elephant behavior. In M.E. Fowler S.K. Mikota (Eds.), The Biology, Medicine and Surgery of Elephants. Blackwell Publishing, Ames, Iowa, pp. 35—43. 

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Abstract A relatively small number of mammalian pheromones has been identified, in contrast to a plethora of known insect pheromones, but two remarkable Asian elephant/insect pheromonal linkages have been elucidated, namely, (Z)-7-dodecen-1-yl acetate and frontalin. In addition, behavioral bioassays have demonstrated the presence of a chemical signal in the urine of female African elephants around the time of ovulation. Our search for possible ovulatory pheromones in the headspace over female African elephant urine has revealed for the first time the presence of a number of known insect pheromones. This search has been facilitated by the use of a powerful new analytical technique, automated solid phase dynamic extraction (SPDE)/GC-MS, as well as by novel macros for enhanced and rapid comparison of multiple mass spectral data files from Agilent ChemStation . This chapter will focus on our methodologies and results, as well as on a comparison of SPDE and the more established techniques of solid phase microextraction (SPME) and stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE). 

Use of automated headspace SPDE/GC-MS not only enabled the identification in female African elephant urine of a number of known insect pheromones (compounds 2-6, Fig. 2.1), but also revealed the presence of the beetle biochemical precursors to frontalin (2), exo-brevicomin (3) and ent/o-brevicomin (4), thus suggesting a common biosynthetic pathway (Goodwin et al. 2006). Extensive behavioral bioassays must be performed to determine whether any of these compounds is functioning as a pheromone among African elephants. 

Schulte, B.A., Bagley, K.R., Groover, M., Loizi, H., Merte, C., Meyer, J.M., Napora, E., Stanley, L., Vyas, D.K., Wollett, K., Goodwin, T.E. and Rasmussen, L.E.L. (2007) Comparisons of state and likelihood of performing chemosensory event behaviors in two populations of African elephants (Loxodonta africana). In J. Hurst, R. Beynon, C. Roberts and T. Wyatt (Eds.), Chemical Signals in Vertebrates 11. Springer Press, New York, pp. 70-79. 

Comparisons of State and Likelihood of Performing Chemosensory Event Behaviors in Two Populations of African Elephants (Loxodonta africanaf... 

The purpose of the current study was to compare the state and chemosensory behaviors of African elephants at our two African study sites. While similarity in these behaviors does not guarantee that chemical signals will be identical in structure and function, the absence of large differences would suggest that such a situation is probable. 

We classified behaviors as states with measurable duration, or as chemosensory events, recorded as a frequency (Martin and Bateson 1993). The major states were drink/suckle, dust/mud/wallow, stand, walk or other. Chemosensory events were actions by the trunk tip contacting another elephant, investigating a substrate or performing actions called accessory trunk behaviors. We recorded the part of the body touched and the age and sex of the individual touched. The chemosensory events included sniff, check, place, and flehmen, and 10 accessory trunk behaviors (blow, dig, flick, horizontal sniff, periscope sniff, pinch, rub, suck, wrap and wriggle see Schulte and Rasmussen 1999 Bagley et al. 2006 Schulte 2006 Vyas 2006). 

The main state behaviors for elephants of all ages at the waterholes in both populations were walk, stand, drink/suckle and bathing in the mud. At Ndarakwai Ranch in Tanzania, these behaviors comprised 90% of the state activities at the waterhole (Fig. 7.1a). In AENP, the same behaviors comprised 97% of the state activities at the various waterholes (Fig. 7.1b). The elephants at Ndarakwai spent somewhat more time drinking and suckling than standing, which was reversed at AENP, but for the... 

Comparisons of Performing Chemosensory Behaviors in African Elephants... 

Fig. 7.1 Comparison of the proportion of total time visible that elephants spent in the four major states (a) at Ndarakwai Ranch, Tanzania (90% of all time in all states sample size was 29, 19, 20 and 32 by age class per behavior from left to right.) and (b) at AENP, South Africa (97% of all time in all states, sample size was 37,37, 34 and 43 from left to right...

Fig. 7.2 Comparison of the proportion of elephants responding with chemosensory behaviors to the general substrate (environment) and to urine/feces for pre- and post-pubescent males and females, (a) Ndarakwai Ranch, Tanzania sample size of different elephants from left to right for environment and to urine/feces 40, 44, 46 and 40. The same animals were observed for response to urine/feces as to the environment, (b) Addo Elephant National Park South Africa sample size from left to right for environment 59, 43, 53 and 48. Many of the same animals were observed for response to urine/feces as to the environment. Sample sizes to urine/feces from left to right 49, 32, 44 and 44...

Significantly more pre-pubescent animals investigated the environment with chemosensory behaviors at Ndarakwai (53.5%) than at AENP (38.2%) (Fisher Exact Test, P = 0.04), but no such difference existed for post-pubescent elephants (57% and 62%, respectively, P = 0.46). The likelihood of performing chemosensory behaviors to urine or feces did not differ between the populations for pre-pubescent (P= 1.0) or post-pubescent elephants (P = 0.85). The same trends were evident if only the main trunk chemosensory behaviors (SCPF) were considered... 

Bagley, K.R. (2004) Chemosensory behavior and development of African male elephants (Lox-odonta africana). M.Sc. thesis, Georgia Southern University. 

When a strong correlation between maximum dive duration and spleen size first was observed in pinnipeds, many workers in the field concluded that the spleen s main function was to act as an internal scuba tank used for extending diving time. If so, the correlation between dive duration and spleen size would be causal. Thornton et al. (2000) reexamined this problem using MRI to monitor spleen behavior during simulated diving in the elephant seal and the... 

Sex attractants. As in most animals, mating in mammals is typically highly competitive and its duration short-lived. Males of many (most) species of mammals have evolved acute abilities to detect and identify ovulating or recently ovulated (fertile) females using special types of signaling pheromones. A good example of such a female cue is found in the Asian elephants (below). Additionally, in a few instances, female mammals have evolved the ability to discern males so that they perform appropriate submissive or receptive behaviors. One of these cues has been identified in the pig (below). 

Figure 5 Chemosensory inspection behaviors by male and female elephants to frontalin (52), demonstrating specific and varying responses to this male pheromone during different life history stages.155...

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