Electrical Reduction

Refractories for Electric Reduction Furnaces. Carbon hearth linings are used in submerged-arc, electric-reduction furnaces producing phosphoms, calcium carbide, all grades of ferrosilicon, high carbon ferrochromium, ferrovanadium, and ferromolybdenum. Carbon is also used in the production of beryllium oxide and beryllium copper where temperatures up to 2273 K ate requited. 

NaC103 + NaCl + H2S04 = C102 + 1/2C12 + Na2S04 + H20 Developed by W. H. Rapson at the Electric Reduction Company of Canada, now Erco Industries, United States. Erco R-3 uses chloride in sulfuric acid as the reductant Erco R-3H uses mixed hydrochloric and sulfuric acids and Erco R-5 uses chloride in hydrochloric acid. 

L. Dill electrolyzed a mixture of phosphoric acid of sp. gr. 1-7 to 1-9 and carbon in a closed vessel provided with a suitable opening, for the escape of phosphorus, etc. Carbon electrodes were used. The Electric Reduction Co., and F. J. Machalske proposed an analogous process. 

O7 ions are also formed, as a first step, in electrical reduction processes where 02 is reduced at a cathode 170). 

Some firearms are plated with anodized aluminum, nickel, or chromium which gives durability and good looks, and some are made from stainless steel which is much less prone to rust than conventional steel. Electroless nickel coating is an alloy coating of 88% to 96% nickel and 4% to 12% phosphorus, which is produced by chemical (not electrical) reduction of nickel on to the metal surface. 

Haber 2 was the first to publish a theory of electrical reduction which is in many points free from the limiting conditions of the diffusion theory. Later, conjointly with Russ,8 he brought it to the form given below. 

Of, also Kuhn, Concerning Reaction Accelerations and Reaction Retardations in Electric Reduction and Oxidations. Ztschr. f. phys. Ghemic 44, 641 0903) Hoe also the chapter on electrode material. 

Besides the usual method of arrangement mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, in which the current derived from any suitable source of electricity passes through the cell, the apparatus can often be suitably simplified—especially for electrical reductions—by employing Lob reaction cells1... 

Carbonic Acid.—Carbonic acid deserves mention here because it can be converted electrolytically into formic acid. Royer 6 observed its formation at zinc and zinc-amalgam electrodes in the electrical reduction of carbonic acid dissolved in water, a current of the gas being conducted through the latter during electrolysis. Klobukow 7 was likewise able to prove the presence of formic acid in water which was electrolyzed and through which a current of carbonic-acid gas was passed. 

The importance, thus shown, of our knowledge of the electrical reduction of nitrobenzene in regard to the practical. and theoretical exploitation of the electrolysis of organic substances makes it desirable to first give a short historical survey... 

The course of electrical reduction, like that of purely chemical reduction, depends decisively upon whether the reduction is carried out in an alkaline or acid solution. But these relations are of a positive nature in electrolysis only so long as they are not compensated by the electrical factors, such as cathode material and potential. To avoid a complication, it is necessary to limit the considerations primarily to unattackable cathodes and to take no account of an adjustment to certain and constant cathode potentials, and to exclude a secondary interference of the solvent, for instance by molecular rearrangements. In this general comprehension of the problem it can be said that the well-known chemical rule reoccurs in electrolytical... 

IHiiitrolctmiiu-tlii/ldiainiiiiiilijiiii ut/l (in -Met raiueihvidiatuint>-phenazone. This, 1 iikm is also produced in tin electric reduction of let ran id hyldiamiiiojthenazone oxide... 

The electrical reduction in an alkaline electrolyte leads Jo u gnod yield, of cMotuylenediamine, If the reduction is carried out in alkaline solution, m-nitro-p-loluidine and (hiuluidnuu ns might lie supposed, are converted into azoxy-, asst> inic 1 hy Sm- tH om nn 1 m Is. 

According to Weizmann,1 anthraquinone, dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid, is converted by electrolytic oxidation into monoxy-, dioxy-, and trioxyanthraquinone. An addition of oxalic acid to the sulphuric acid is suitable for obtaining dioxyanthraquinone. A nitrooxyanthraquinone, which is convertible by electrical reduction into amidoalizarin, is similarly obtained from mononitroanthraqninone.2 The amidoalizarin can be directly obtained from nitroanthraquinone if its solution is electrolyzed with an alternating current. The sulphonic-acid derivatives of anthraquinone behave like anthraquinone. 

Pm. 1.—Electric Resistance Furnace for the Manufacture of Phosphorus. (Electric Reduction Company.)... 

Electric Reduction Co., English Patent (1898), 5796. See also Hempel, Zeitsch. angew. Chem., 1905,18, 132, 401 Neumann, ibid., 1905, 18, 289. 

The transformation of the diketothiocane 4 (Section 14.03.9.4) into a thiocine derivative could be achieved by the electrical reduction of both keto functions in 4. The cyclic voltagrams (GV) of 4 in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) show two reversible half-wave reduction potentials ( 1/2 = —0.78 V, 2 i/2 = —1.17 V) and a little difference between two potentials compared with those of anthraquinone was observed, indicating greater stability of the radical anion 13 and dianion 14 in Scheme 4 than corresponding species of anthraquinone <2001H(54)159>. 

Just prior to doing the reduction, the surface of the lead cathode should be coated with a layer of lead oxide. This is done in a separate beaker filled with 5% by weight sulfuric acid solution diluted with water. The cathode for the reaction is immersed in the dilute sulfuric acid and attached to the positive pole of a CD power source such as a car battery. Now into the solution put a negative counter pole, such as for example the metal end of a jumper cable attaehed to the negative counter pole, such as for example the metal end of a jumper eable attached to the negative pole of the previously mentioned ear battery. The solution will fizz as the eurrent flows through it, and the cathode lead sheet will become coated with oxide within a minute or two. Pull it out and rinse with water. This oxide coating must be done before each run of this electric cell. Then it can be placed into the electric reduction vessel and the catholyte and the anolyte poured into then-respective places. 

Ammonia synthesis catalyst preparation by the electrical reduction of a catalyst precursor mixture, followed by impregnation with a solution containing promoters. K. Yu, K. Li, J. Li, T. Yang, X. Chen, T. Zhang, Y. Chen, and L. Zhao (Yu Kanzhuang). CN 85 00601 (1986). 

Peltier Jean Charles Athanase (1785-1845) Fr. phys., watchmaker, discovered a thermo-electric reduction of temperature which effect is named after him Penrose Roger (1931-) US. math., suggesting that all calculation about both micro- and macro- worlds should use complex numbers, (requires reformulation of major laws of physics) proposed a new model of universe whose building blocks he called twisters (Penrose s tiling). 

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